Physics Book - User contributions [en]

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T04:53:07Z

Tkaniff3: /* Manhattan Project */

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American physicist born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8th, 1901. His parents, Carl Gustavus and Gunda Lawrence, were both the children of Norwegian Immigrants who met while teaching at the same high school. Ernest had one younger brother named John H. Lawrence who pioneered the field of nuclear medicine. In 1926 he met his wife Mary Kimberley (Molly) Blumer and the two eventually married in 1932. They went on to have six kids named Eric, Margaret, Mary, Robert, Barbara, and Susan. Ernest Lawrence died on August 27, 1958 due to an assortment of medical issues at Palo Alto Hospital in Palo Alto, California.

===University Education===
After attending high school at Canton High School, Lawrence attended many universities. He first attended St. Olaf College for a year before transferring to the University of South Dakota where he received his B.A. in Chemistry in 1922. In 1923 he received his M.A. in Physics from the University of Minnesota then went on to spend time at the University of Chicago before receiving his Ph.D. in Physics from Yale in 1925.

===Career===
After completing his education, Lawrence received multiple offers to be an assistant professor from the University of Washington and the University of California and Yale University. Lawrence elected to stay at Yale until 1928 when he was hired by the University of California as an associate professor and two years later became a full professor, becoming the schools youngest professor. Eight years later he was named the Director of Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory which he stayed until his death in 1958.

==Scientific Contributions==
===Cyclotron===
[[File:Cyclotrondiagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of a cyclotron]]
Ernest Lawrence is most famous for his invention of the cyclotron. For his work in nuclear physics, Lawrence needed a particle accelerator in his lab. The time periods standard model was a linear accelerator and to make more powerful experiments you would need much higher energy that would come from making the accelerator longer. However, his lab did not have room for an increasingly long accelerator so he began trying to make a more compact accelerator.
[[File:27-inch_cyclotron.jpg|200px|thumb|left|M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence next to a 27-inch cyclotron at the Radiation Laboratory in 1934.]]
The idea for the cyclotron began when Lawrence read an article by Rolf Wideroe that had a model for an accelerator that was still linear, but had increasingly longer electrodes to increase the speed of the particle. He then applied this idea to a circular chamber. The cyclotron is two semicircle metal chambers called dees that are placed in a very strong magnetic field. Near the center of the cyclotron there is a source of slow protons and a slit in each dee. Inside the metal dees the electric field is zero, however when it exits one dee it receives a boost in energy from the potential difference between the two dees and increases speed. While the particle is in one of the dees, the electric field is reversed, this reversing the potential difference between the dees so that the particle receives another boost when it crosses the gap. This increase in speed causes the particle to take a path with a larger radius every time it enters a new dee. The particle continues this spiral pattern and continues to accelerate until it reaches the opening at the edge and shoots the proton at the nucleus of an atom.

Lawrence made many versions of the cyclotron at his time at Berkeley. The first one was 5 inches in diameter but the sizes grew to 11, 27, and 60 inched in diameter at his Berkeley lab. The largest modern circular accelerator is currently at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland and has a circumference of 17 miles. In 1939 Lawrence won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the cyclotron.

===Manhattan Project===
As one of the nation's most prominent American nuclear physicists, Ernest Lawrence became involved in many military projects that started due to the outbreak of World War II. Some of these included further developooing the cavity magnertron and also helping at underwater sound labs to develop technology to detect submarines. However, his most important work came in his contributions to the Manhattan Project. Lawrence and his colleagues used the 60inch cyclotron to create new isotopes of uranium and plutonium. Plutonium's discovery was kept secret until after the war was over because it turned out that the isotope plutonoum-239 could undergo nuclear fission and be used to make atomic bombs. Lawrence began separating these isotopes using a mass spectrometer which as a technique developed by Oliphant. He converted his 37inch cyclotron into a mass spectrometer and during the Manhattan Project, Lawrence's Radiation Laboratory was responsible for the development of the electromagnetic uranium enrichment process that was used in the atomic bombs made at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico. Lawrence was a major contributor to the development of the atomic bomb through the Manhattan Project. As a result of this, after the war in 1958, President Eisenhower asked Lawrence to travel to Geneva Switzerland to negotiate a partial nuclear test ban with the Soviet Union.

==Awards==
- Hughes Medal (1937)

- Elliott Cresson Medal (1937)

- Comstock Prize in Physics (1938)

- Nobel Prize in Physics (1939)

- Duddell Medal and Prize (1940)

- Holley Medal (1942)

- Medal for Merit (1946)

- Officer de la Legion d'Honneur (1948)

- William Procter Prize (1951)

- Faraday Medal (1952)

- Enrico Fermi Award (1957)

- Sylvanus Thayer Award (1958)

==References==
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence#Early_life

www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence-bio.html

www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/early-years.html

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/27-inch_cyclotron.

www2.lbl.gov/images/PID/Lawrence.gif

static.sfdict.com/dictstatic/dictionary/graphics/ahsd/jpg/AScyclot.jpg

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T04:47:35Z

Tkaniff3: /* Scientific Contributions */

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American physicist born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8th, 1901. His parents, Carl Gustavus and Gunda Lawrence, were both the children of Norwegian Immigrants who met while teaching at the same high school. Ernest had one younger brother named John H. Lawrence who pioneered the field of nuclear medicine. In 1926 he met his wife Mary Kimberley (Molly) Blumer and the two eventually married in 1932. They went on to have six kids named Eric, Margaret, Mary, Robert, Barbara, and Susan. Ernest Lawrence died on August 27, 1958 due to an assortment of medical issues at Palo Alto Hospital in Palo Alto, California.

===University Education===
After attending high school at Canton High School, Lawrence attended many universities. He first attended St. Olaf College for a year before transferring to the University of South Dakota where he received his B.A. in Chemistry in 1922. In 1923 he received his M.A. in Physics from the University of Minnesota then went on to spend time at the University of Chicago before receiving his Ph.D. in Physics from Yale in 1925.

===Career===
After completing his education, Lawrence received multiple offers to be an assistant professor from the University of Washington and the University of California and Yale University. Lawrence elected to stay at Yale until 1928 when he was hired by the University of California as an associate professor and two years later became a full professor, becoming the schools youngest professor. Eight years later he was named the Director of Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory which he stayed until his death in 1958.

==Scientific Contributions==
===Cyclotron===
[[File:Cyclotrondiagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of a cyclotron]]
Ernest Lawrence is most famous for his invention of the cyclotron. For his work in nuclear physics, Lawrence needed a particle accelerator in his lab. The time periods standard model was a linear accelerator and to make more powerful experiments you would need much higher energy that would come from making the accelerator longer. However, his lab did not have room for an increasingly long accelerator so he began trying to make a more compact accelerator.
[[File:27-inch_cyclotron.jpg|200px|thumb|left|M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence next to a 27-inch cyclotron at the Radiation Laboratory in 1934.]]
The idea for the cyclotron began when Lawrence read an article by Rolf Wideroe that had a model for an accelerator that was still linear, but had increasingly longer electrodes to increase the speed of the particle. He then applied this idea to a circular chamber. The cyclotron is two semicircle metal chambers called dees that are placed in a very strong magnetic field. Near the center of the cyclotron there is a source of slow protons and a slit in each dee. Inside the metal dees the electric field is zero, however when it exits one dee it receives a boost in energy from the potential difference between the two dees and increases speed. While the particle is in one of the dees, the electric field is reversed, this reversing the potential difference between the dees so that the particle receives another boost when it crosses the gap. This increase in speed causes the particle to take a path with a larger radius every time it enters a new dee. The particle continues this spiral pattern and continues to accelerate until it reaches the opening at the edge and shoots the proton at the nucleus of an atom.

Lawrence made many versions of the cyclotron at his time at Berkeley. The first one was 5 inches in diameter but the sizes grew to 11, 27, and 60 inched in diameter at his Berkeley lab. The largest modern circular accelerator is currently at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland and has a circumference of 17 miles. In 1939 Lawrence won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the cyclotron.

===Manhattan Project===
As one of the nation's most prominent American nuclear physicists, Ernest Lawrence became involved in many military projects that started due to the outbreak of World War II. Some of these included further developooing the cavity magnertron and also helping at underwater sound labs to develop technology to detect submarines. However, his most important work came in his contributions to the Manhattan Project. Lawrence and his colleagues used the 60inch cyclotron to create new isotopes of uranium and plutonium. Plutonium's discovery was kept secret until after the war was over because it turned out that the isotope plutonoum-239 could undergo nuclear fission and be used to make atomic bombs. Lawrence began separating these isotopes using a mass spectrometer which as a technique developed by Oliphant. He converted his 37inch cyclotron into a mass spectrometer and during the Manhattan Project, Lawrence's Radiation Laboratory was responsible for the development of the electromagnetic uranium enrichment process that was used in the atomic bombs made at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico.

==Awards==
- Hughes Medal (1937)

- Elliott Cresson Medal (1937)

- Comstock Prize in Physics (1938)

- Nobel Prize in Physics (1939)

- Duddell Medal and Prize (1940)

- Holley Medal (1942)

- Medal for Merit (1946)

- Officer de la Legion d'Honneur (1948)

- William Procter Prize (1951)

- Faraday Medal (1952)

- Enrico Fermi Award (1957)

- Sylvanus Thayer Award (1958)

==References==
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence#Early_life

www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence-bio.html

www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/early-years.html

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/27-inch_cyclotron.

www2.lbl.gov/images/PID/Lawrence.gif

static.sfdict.com/dictstatic/dictionary/graphics/ahsd/jpg/AScyclot.jpg

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T04:11:22Z

Tkaniff3: /* References */

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American physicist born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8th, 1901. His parents, Carl Gustavus and Gunda Lawrence, were both the children of Norwegian Immigrants who met while teaching at the same high school. Ernest had one younger brother named John H. Lawrence who pioneered the field of nuclear medicine. In 1926 he met his wife Mary Kimberley (Molly) Blumer and the two eventually married in 1932. They went on to have six kids named Eric, Margaret, Mary, Robert, Barbara, and Susan. Ernest Lawrence died on August 27, 1958 due to an assortment of medical issues at Palo Alto Hospital in Palo Alto, California.

===University Education===
After attending high school at Canton High School, Lawrence attended many universities. He first attended St. Olaf College for a year before transferring to the University of South Dakota where he received his B.A. in Chemistry in 1922. In 1923 he received his M.A. in Physics from the University of Minnesota then went on to spend time at the University of Chicago before receiving his Ph.D. in Physics from Yale in 1925.

===Career===
After completing his education, Lawrence received multiple offers to be an assistant professor from the University of Washington and the University of California and Yale University. Lawrence elected to stay at Yale until 1928 when he was hired by the University of California as an associate professor and two years later became a full professor, becoming the schools youngest professor. Eight years later he was named the Director of Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory which he stayed until his death in 1958.

==Scientific Contributions==
===Cyclotron===
[[File:Cyclotrondiagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of a cyclotron]]
Ernest Lawrence is most famous for his invention of the cyclotron. For his work in nuclear physics, Lawrence needed a particle accelerator in his lab. The time periods standard model was a linear accelerator and to make more powerful experiments you would need much higher energy that would come from making the accelerator longer. However, his lab did not have room for an increasingly long accelerator so he began trying to make a more compact accelerator.
[[File:27-inch_cyclotron.jpg|200px|thumb|left|M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence next to a 27-inch cyclotron at the Radiation Laboratory in 1934.]]
The idea for the cyclotron began when Lawrence read an article by Rolf Wideroe that had a model for an accelerator that was still linear, but had increasingly longer electrodes to increase the speed of the particle. He then applied this idea to a circular chamber. The cyclotron is two semicircle metal chambers called dees that are placed in a very strong magnetic field. Near the center of the cyclotron there is a source of slow protons and a slit in each dee. Inside the metal dees the electric field is zero, however when it exits one dee it receives a boost in energy from the potential difference between the two dees and increases speed. While the particle is in one of the dees, the electric field is reversed, this reversing the potential difference between the dees so that the particle receives another boost when it crosses the gap. This increase in speed causes the particle to take a path with a larger radius every time it enters a new dee. The particle continues this spiral pattern and continues to accelerate until it reaches the opening at the edge and shoots the proton at the nucleus of an atom.

Lawrence made many versions of the cyclotron at his time at Berkeley. The first one was 5 inches in diameter but the sizes grew to 11, 27, and 60 inched in diameter at his Berkeley lab. The largest modern circular accelerator is currently at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland and has a circumference of 17 miles. In 1939 Lawrence won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the cyclotron.

==Awards==
- Hughes Medal (1937)

- Elliott Cresson Medal (1937)

- Comstock Prize in Physics (1938)

- Nobel Prize in Physics (1939)

- Duddell Medal and Prize (1940)

- Holley Medal (1942)

- Medal for Merit (1946)

- Officer de la Legion d'Honneur (1948)

- William Procter Prize (1951)

- Faraday Medal (1952)

- Enrico Fermi Award (1957)

- Sylvanus Thayer Award (1958)

==References==
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence#Early_life

www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence-bio.html

www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/early-years.html

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/27-inch_cyclotron.

www2.lbl.gov/images/PID/Lawrence.gif

static.sfdict.com/dictstatic/dictionary/graphics/ahsd/jpg/AScyclot.jpg

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T04:11:08Z

Tkaniff3: /* References */

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American physicist born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8th, 1901. His parents, Carl Gustavus and Gunda Lawrence, were both the children of Norwegian Immigrants who met while teaching at the same high school. Ernest had one younger brother named John H. Lawrence who pioneered the field of nuclear medicine. In 1926 he met his wife Mary Kimberley (Molly) Blumer and the two eventually married in 1932. They went on to have six kids named Eric, Margaret, Mary, Robert, Barbara, and Susan. Ernest Lawrence died on August 27, 1958 due to an assortment of medical issues at Palo Alto Hospital in Palo Alto, California.

===University Education===
After attending high school at Canton High School, Lawrence attended many universities. He first attended St. Olaf College for a year before transferring to the University of South Dakota where he received his B.A. in Chemistry in 1922. In 1923 he received his M.A. in Physics from the University of Minnesota then went on to spend time at the University of Chicago before receiving his Ph.D. in Physics from Yale in 1925.

===Career===
After completing his education, Lawrence received multiple offers to be an assistant professor from the University of Washington and the University of California and Yale University. Lawrence elected to stay at Yale until 1928 when he was hired by the University of California as an associate professor and two years later became a full professor, becoming the schools youngest professor. Eight years later he was named the Director of Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory which he stayed until his death in 1958.

==Scientific Contributions==
===Cyclotron===
[[File:Cyclotrondiagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of a cyclotron]]
Ernest Lawrence is most famous for his invention of the cyclotron. For his work in nuclear physics, Lawrence needed a particle accelerator in his lab. The time periods standard model was a linear accelerator and to make more powerful experiments you would need much higher energy that would come from making the accelerator longer. However, his lab did not have room for an increasingly long accelerator so he began trying to make a more compact accelerator.
[[File:27-inch_cyclotron.jpg|200px|thumb|left|M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence next to a 27-inch cyclotron at the Radiation Laboratory in 1934.]]
The idea for the cyclotron began when Lawrence read an article by Rolf Wideroe that had a model for an accelerator that was still linear, but had increasingly longer electrodes to increase the speed of the particle. He then applied this idea to a circular chamber. The cyclotron is two semicircle metal chambers called dees that are placed in a very strong magnetic field. Near the center of the cyclotron there is a source of slow protons and a slit in each dee. Inside the metal dees the electric field is zero, however when it exits one dee it receives a boost in energy from the potential difference between the two dees and increases speed. While the particle is in one of the dees, the electric field is reversed, this reversing the potential difference between the dees so that the particle receives another boost when it crosses the gap. This increase in speed causes the particle to take a path with a larger radius every time it enters a new dee. The particle continues this spiral pattern and continues to accelerate until it reaches the opening at the edge and shoots the proton at the nucleus of an atom.

Lawrence made many versions of the cyclotron at his time at Berkeley. The first one was 5 inches in diameter but the sizes grew to 11, 27, and 60 inched in diameter at his Berkeley lab. The largest modern circular accelerator is currently at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland and has a circumference of 17 miles. In 1939 Lawrence won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the cyclotron.

==Awards==
- Hughes Medal (1937)

- Elliott Cresson Medal (1937)

- Comstock Prize in Physics (1938)

- Nobel Prize in Physics (1939)

- Duddell Medal and Prize (1940)

- Holley Medal (1942)

- Medal for Merit (1946)

- Officer de la Legion d'Honneur (1948)

- William Procter Prize (1951)

- Faraday Medal (1952)

- Enrico Fermi Award (1957)

- Sylvanus Thayer Award (1958)

==References==
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence#Early_life
www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1939/lawrence-bio.html
www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/early-years.html
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/27-inch_cyclotron.
www2.lbl.gov/images/PID/Lawrence.gif
static.sfdict.com/dictstatic/dictionary/graphics/ahsd/jpg/AScyclot.jpg

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T04:08:43Z

Tkaniff3: /* External links */

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American physicist born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8th, 1901. His parents, Carl Gustavus and Gunda Lawrence, were both the children of Norwegian Immigrants who met while teaching at the same high school. Ernest had one younger brother named John H. Lawrence who pioneered the field of nuclear medicine. In 1926 he met his wife Mary Kimberley (Molly) Blumer and the two eventually married in 1932. They went on to have six kids named Eric, Margaret, Mary, Robert, Barbara, and Susan. Ernest Lawrence died on August 27, 1958 due to an assortment of medical issues at Palo Alto Hospital in Palo Alto, California.

===University Education===
After attending high school at Canton High School, Lawrence attended many universities. He first attended St. Olaf College for a year before transferring to the University of South Dakota where he received his B.A. in Chemistry in 1922. In 1923 he received his M.A. in Physics from the University of Minnesota then went on to spend time at the University of Chicago before receiving his Ph.D. in Physics from Yale in 1925.

===Career===
After completing his education, Lawrence received multiple offers to be an assistant professor from the University of Washington and the University of California and Yale University. Lawrence elected to stay at Yale until 1928 when he was hired by the University of California as an associate professor and two years later became a full professor, becoming the schools youngest professor. Eight years later he was named the Director of Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory which he stayed until his death in 1958.

==Scientific Contributions==
===Cyclotron===
[[File:Cyclotrondiagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of a cyclotron]]
Ernest Lawrence is most famous for his invention of the cyclotron. For his work in nuclear physics, Lawrence needed a particle accelerator in his lab. The time periods standard model was a linear accelerator and to make more powerful experiments you would need much higher energy that would come from making the accelerator longer. However, his lab did not have room for an increasingly long accelerator so he began trying to make a more compact accelerator.
[[File:27-inch_cyclotron.jpg|200px|thumb|left|M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence next to a 27-inch cyclotron at the Radiation Laboratory in 1934.]]
The idea for the cyclotron began when Lawrence read an article by Rolf Wideroe that had a model for an accelerator that was still linear, but had increasingly longer electrodes to increase the speed of the particle. He then applied this idea to a circular chamber. The cyclotron is two semicircle metal chambers called dees that are placed in a very strong magnetic field. Near the center of the cyclotron there is a source of slow protons and a slit in each dee. Inside the metal dees the electric field is zero, however when it exits one dee it receives a boost in energy from the potential difference between the two dees and increases speed. While the particle is in one of the dees, the electric field is reversed, this reversing the potential difference between the dees so that the particle receives another boost when it crosses the gap. This increase in speed causes the particle to take a path with a larger radius every time it enters a new dee. The particle continues this spiral pattern and continues to accelerate until it reaches the opening at the edge and shoots the proton at the nucleus of an atom.

Lawrence made many versions of the cyclotron at his time at Berkeley. The first one was 5 inches in diameter but the sizes grew to 11, 27, and 60 inched in diameter at his Berkeley lab. The largest modern circular accelerator is currently at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland and has a circumference of 17 miles. In 1939 Lawrence won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the cyclotron.

==Awards==
- Hughes Medal (1937)

- Elliott Cresson Medal (1937)

- Comstock Prize in Physics (1938)

- Nobel Prize in Physics (1939)

- Duddell Medal and Prize (1940)

- Holley Medal (1942)

- Medal for Merit (1946)

- Officer de la Legion d'Honneur (1948)

- William Procter Prize (1951)

- Faraday Medal (1952)

- Enrico Fermi Award (1957)

- Sylvanus Thayer Award (1958)

==References==

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T04:08:09Z

Tkaniff3: /* Awards */

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American physicist born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8th, 1901. His parents, Carl Gustavus and Gunda Lawrence, were both the children of Norwegian Immigrants who met while teaching at the same high school. Ernest had one younger brother named John H. Lawrence who pioneered the field of nuclear medicine. In 1926 he met his wife Mary Kimberley (Molly) Blumer and the two eventually married in 1932. They went on to have six kids named Eric, Margaret, Mary, Robert, Barbara, and Susan. Ernest Lawrence died on August 27, 1958 due to an assortment of medical issues at Palo Alto Hospital in Palo Alto, California.

===University Education===
After attending high school at Canton High School, Lawrence attended many universities. He first attended St. Olaf College for a year before transferring to the University of South Dakota where he received his B.A. in Chemistry in 1922. In 1923 he received his M.A. in Physics from the University of Minnesota then went on to spend time at the University of Chicago before receiving his Ph.D. in Physics from Yale in 1925.

===Career===
After completing his education, Lawrence received multiple offers to be an assistant professor from the University of Washington and the University of California and Yale University. Lawrence elected to stay at Yale until 1928 when he was hired by the University of California as an associate professor and two years later became a full professor, becoming the schools youngest professor. Eight years later he was named the Director of Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory which he stayed until his death in 1958.

==Scientific Contributions==
===Cyclotron===
[[File:Cyclotrondiagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of a cyclotron]]
Ernest Lawrence is most famous for his invention of the cyclotron. For his work in nuclear physics, Lawrence needed a particle accelerator in his lab. The time periods standard model was a linear accelerator and to make more powerful experiments you would need much higher energy that would come from making the accelerator longer. However, his lab did not have room for an increasingly long accelerator so he began trying to make a more compact accelerator.
[[File:27-inch_cyclotron.jpg|200px|thumb|left|M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence next to a 27-inch cyclotron at the Radiation Laboratory in 1934.]]
The idea for the cyclotron began when Lawrence read an article by Rolf Wideroe that had a model for an accelerator that was still linear, but had increasingly longer electrodes to increase the speed of the particle. He then applied this idea to a circular chamber. The cyclotron is two semicircle metal chambers called dees that are placed in a very strong magnetic field. Near the center of the cyclotron there is a source of slow protons and a slit in each dee. Inside the metal dees the electric field is zero, however when it exits one dee it receives a boost in energy from the potential difference between the two dees and increases speed. While the particle is in one of the dees, the electric field is reversed, this reversing the potential difference between the dees so that the particle receives another boost when it crosses the gap. This increase in speed causes the particle to take a path with a larger radius every time it enters a new dee. The particle continues this spiral pattern and continues to accelerate until it reaches the opening at the edge and shoots the proton at the nucleus of an atom.

Lawrence made many versions of the cyclotron at his time at Berkeley. The first one was 5 inches in diameter but the sizes grew to 11, 27, and 60 inched in diameter at his Berkeley lab. The largest modern circular accelerator is currently at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland and has a circumference of 17 miles. In 1939 Lawrence won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the cyclotron.

==Awards==
- Hughes Medal (1937)

- Elliott Cresson Medal (1937)

- Comstock Prize in Physics (1938)

- Nobel Prize in Physics (1939)

- Duddell Medal and Prize (1940)

- Holley Medal (1942)

- Medal for Merit (1946)

- Officer de la Legion d'Honneur (1948)

- William Procter Prize (1951)

- Faraday Medal (1952)

- Enrico Fermi Award (1957)

- Sylvanus Thayer Award (1958)

==References==

===External links===

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T04:07:29Z

Tkaniff3:

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was an American physicist born in Canton, South Dakota on August 8th, 1901. His parents, Carl Gustavus and Gunda Lawrence, were both the children of Norwegian Immigrants who met while teaching at the same high school. Ernest had one younger brother named John H. Lawrence who pioneered the field of nuclear medicine. In 1926 he met his wife Mary Kimberley (Molly) Blumer and the two eventually married in 1932. They went on to have six kids named Eric, Margaret, Mary, Robert, Barbara, and Susan. Ernest Lawrence died on August 27, 1958 due to an assortment of medical issues at Palo Alto Hospital in Palo Alto, California.

===University Education===
After attending high school at Canton High School, Lawrence attended many universities. He first attended St. Olaf College for a year before transferring to the University of South Dakota where he received his B.A. in Chemistry in 1922. In 1923 he received his M.A. in Physics from the University of Minnesota then went on to spend time at the University of Chicago before receiving his Ph.D. in Physics from Yale in 1925.

===Career===
After completing his education, Lawrence received multiple offers to be an assistant professor from the University of Washington and the University of California and Yale University. Lawrence elected to stay at Yale until 1928 when he was hired by the University of California as an associate professor and two years later became a full professor, becoming the schools youngest professor. Eight years later he was named the Director of Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory which he stayed until his death in 1958.

==Scientific Contributions==
===Cyclotron===
[[File:Cyclotrondiagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of a cyclotron]]
Ernest Lawrence is most famous for his invention of the cyclotron. For his work in nuclear physics, Lawrence needed a particle accelerator in his lab. The time periods standard model was a linear accelerator and to make more powerful experiments you would need much higher energy that would come from making the accelerator longer. However, his lab did not have room for an increasingly long accelerator so he began trying to make a more compact accelerator.
[[File:27-inch_cyclotron.jpg|200px|thumb|left|M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest Lawrence next to a 27-inch cyclotron at the Radiation Laboratory in 1934.]]
The idea for the cyclotron began when Lawrence read an article by Rolf Wideroe that had a model for an accelerator that was still linear, but had increasingly longer electrodes to increase the speed of the particle. He then applied this idea to a circular chamber. The cyclotron is two semicircle metal chambers called dees that are placed in a very strong magnetic field. Near the center of the cyclotron there is a source of slow protons and a slit in each dee. Inside the metal dees the electric field is zero, however when it exits one dee it receives a boost in energy from the potential difference between the two dees and increases speed. While the particle is in one of the dees, the electric field is reversed, this reversing the potential difference between the dees so that the particle receives another boost when it crosses the gap. This increase in speed causes the particle to take a path with a larger radius every time it enters a new dee. The particle continues this spiral pattern and continues to accelerate until it reaches the opening at the edge and shoots the proton at the nucleus of an atom.

Lawrence made many versions of the cyclotron at his time at Berkeley. The first one was 5 inches in diameter but the sizes grew to 11, 27, and 60 inched in diameter at his Berkeley lab. The largest modern circular accelerator is currently at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland and has a circumference of 17 miles. In 1939 Lawrence won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the cyclotron.

==Awards==
- Hughes Medal (1937)
- Elliott Cresson Medal (1937)
- Comstock Prize in Physics (1938)
- Nobel Prize in Physics (1939)
- Duddell Medal and Prize (1940)
- Holley Medal (1942)
- Medal for Merit (1946)
- Officer de la Legion d'Honneur (1948)
- William Procter Prize (1951)
- Faraday Medal (1952)
- Enrico Fermi Award (1957)
- Sylvanus Thayer Award (1958)

==References==

===External links===

Ernest Lawrence

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Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3: /* Cyclotron */

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3:

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3: /* Scientific Contributions */

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T03:56:28Z

Tkaniff3: /* Scientific Contributions */

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3: /* Cyclotron */

File:Cyclotrondiagram.jpg

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Tkaniff3:

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3:

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3:

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3: /* Scientific Contribution */

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3: /* Personal Life */

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3: /* Personal Life */

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3: /* Personal Life */

Ernest Lawrence

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Tkaniff3:

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==

===University Education and Career===

==Scientific Contribution==

==Interesting Facts==

== See also ==

==References==

===External links===

File:Lawrence.gif

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Tkaniff3:

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T02:03:52Z

Tkaniff3:

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:Lawrence.gif|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==

===University Education and Career===

==Scientific Contribution==

===Coulomb’s Law===

==Interesting Facts==

== See also ==

==References==

===External links===

Ernest Lawrence

2015-12-06T02:02:45Z

Tkaniff3: Created page with "Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff Ernest Lawrence ==Personal Life== ===University Education and Career=== ==Scientifi..."

Claimed by Thomas Corbett Kaniff

[[File:charles_de_coulomb.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Ernest Lawrence]]

==Personal Life==

===University Education and Career===

==Scientific Contribution==

===Coulomb’s Law===

==Interesting Facts==

== See also ==

==References==

===External links===

Main Page

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Tkaniff3: /* Notable Scientists */

__NOTOC__
Welcome to the Georgia Tech Wiki for Intro Physics. This resources was created so that students can contribute and curate content to help those with limited or no access to a textbook. When reading this website, please correct any errors you may come across. If you read something that isn't clear, please consider revising it!

Looking to make a contribution?
#Pick a specific topic from intro physics
#Add that topic, as a link to a new page, under the appropriate category listed below by editing this page.
#Copy and paste the default [[Template]] into your new page and start editing.

Please remember that this is not a textbook and you are not limited to expressing your ideas with only text and equations. Whenever possible embed: pictures, videos, diagrams, simulations, computational models (e.g. Glowscript), and whatever content you think makes learning physics easier for other students.

== Source Material ==
All of the content added to this resource must be in the public domain or similar free resource. If you are unsure about a source, contact the original author for permission. That said, there is a surprisingly large amount of introductory physics content scattered across the web. Here is an incomplete list of intro physics resources (please update as needed).
* A physics resource written by experts for an expert audience [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics Physics Portal]
* A wiki book on modern physics [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Modern_Physics Modern Physics Wiki]
* The MIT open courseware for intro physics [http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-8-002-a-wikitextbook-for-introductory-mechanics-fall-2009/index.htm MITOCW Wiki]
* An online concept map of intro physics [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html HyperPhysics]
* Interactive physics simulations [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics PhET]
* OpenStax algebra based intro physics textbook [https://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/college-physics College Physics]
* The Open Source Physics project is a collection of online physics resources [http://www.opensourcephysics.org/ OSP]
* A resource guide compiled by the [http://www.aapt.org/ AAPT] for educators [http://www.compadre.org/ ComPADRE]

== Organizing Categories ==
These are the broad, overarching categories, that we cover in two semester of introductory physics. You can add subcategories or make a new category as needed. A single topic should direct readers to a page in one of these catagories.

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
===Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Kinds of Matter]]
**[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]]
*[[Escape Velocity]]
*[[Fundamental Interactions]]
*[[Determinism]]
*[[System & Surroundings]]
*[[Free Body Diagram]]
*[[Newton's First Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Second Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Third Law of Motion]]
*[[Gravitational Force]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Conservation of Energy]]
*[[Conservation of Charge]]
*[[Terminal Speed]]
*[[Simple Harmonic Motion]]
*[[Speed and Velocity]]
*[[Acceleration]]
*[[Electric Polarization]]
*[[Perpetual Freefall (Orbit)]]
*[[2-Dimensional Motion]]
*[[3-Dimensional Position and Motion]]
*[[Center of Mass]]
*[[Reaction Time]]
*[[Time Dilation]]
*[[Pauli exclusion principle]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Modeling with VPython===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[VPython]]
*[[VPython basics]]
*[[VPython Common Errors and Troubleshooting]]
*[[VPython Functions]]
*[[VPython Lists]]
*[[VPython Loops]]
*[[VPython Multithreading]]
*[[VPython Animation]]
*[[VPython Objects]]
*[[VPython 3D Objects]]
*[[VPython Reference]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Theory===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]
*[[Einstein's Theory of General Relativity]]
*[[Quantum Theory]]
*[[Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory]]
*[[Atomic Theory]]
*[[String Theory]]
*[[Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory]]
*[[Law of Gravitation]]
*[[Newton's Laws]]
*[[Higgs field]]
*[[Supersymmetry]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Notable Scientists===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov]]
*[[Christian Doppler]]
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]
*[[Joseph Henry]]
*[[Michael Faraday]]
*[[J.J. Thomson]]
*[[James Maxwell]]
*[[Robert Hooke]]
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
*[[Nikola Tesla]]
*[[Andre Marie Ampere]]
*[[Sir Isaac Newton]]
*[[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
*[[Oliver Heaviside]]
*[[Rosalind Franklin]]
*[[Enrico Fermi]]
*[[Robert J. Van de Graaff]]
*[[Charles de Coulomb]]
*[[Hans Christian Ørsted]]
*[[Philo Farnsworth]]
*[[Niels Bohr]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Leo Szilard]]
*[[Galileo Galilei]]
*[[Gustav Kirchhoff]]
*[[Max Planck]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Edwin Hall]]
*[[James Watt]]
*[[Count Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Josiah Willard Gibbs]]
*[[Richard Phillips Feynman]]
*[[Sir David Brewster]]
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]]
*[[William Thomson]]
*[[Leonhard Euler]]
*[[Robert Fox Bacher]]
*[[Stephen Hawking]]
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]]
*[[Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen]]
*[[Pierre Laplace]]
*[[Thomas Edison]]
*[[Hendrik Lorentz]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Biot]]
*[[Lise Meitner]]
*[[Lisa Randall]]
*[[Felix Savart]]
*[[Heinrich Lenz]]
*[[Max Born]]
*[[Archimedes]]
*[[Jean Baptiste Biot]]
*[[Carl Sagan]]
*[[Eugene Wigner]]
*[[Marie Curie]]
*[[Pierre Curie]]
*[[Werner Heisenberg]]
*[[Johannes Diderik van der Waals]]
*[[Louis de Broglie]]
*[[Aristotle]]
*[[Émilie du Châtelet]]
*[[Blaise Pascal]]
*[[Siméon Denis Poisson]]
*[[Benjamin Franklin]]
*[[James Chadwick]]
*[[Henry Cavendish]]
*[[Thomas Young]]
*[[James Prescott Joule]]
*[[John Bardeen]]
*[[Leo Baekeland]]
*[[Alhazen]]
*[[Willebrord Snell]]
*[[Fritz Walther Meissner]]
*[[Johannes Kepler]]
*[[Johann Wilhelm Ritter]]
*[[Philipp Lenard]]
*[[Robert A. Millikan]]
*[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]]
*[[Guglielmo Marconi]]
*[[William Lawrence Bragg]]
*[[Robert Goddard]]
*[[Léon Foucault]]
*[[Henri Poincaré]]
*[[Steven Weinberg]]
*[[Arthur Compton]]
*[[Pythagoras of Samos]]
*[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]]
*[[Wilhelm Eduard Weber]]
*[[Edmond Becquerel]]
*[[Joseph Rotblat]]
*[[Carl David Anderson]]
*[[Hermann von Helmholtz]]
*[[Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot]]
*[[Wallace Carothers]]
*[[David J. Wineland]]
*[[Rudolf Clausius]]
*[[Edward L. Norton]]
*[[Shuji Nakamura]]
*[[Pierre Laplace Pt. 2]]
*[[William B. Shockley]]
*[[Osborne Reynolds]]
*[[Christian Huygens]]
*[[Hans Bethe]]
*[[Erwin Schrodinger]]
*[[Wolfgang Pauli]]
*[[Paul Dirac]]
*[[Bill Nye]]
*[[Arnold Sommerfeld]]
*[[Ernest Lawrence]]
*[[James Franck]]
*[[Chen-Ning Yang]]
*[[Albert A. Micheleson & Edward W. Morley]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Properties of Matter===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Mass]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Relative Velocity]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Charge]]
*[[Spin]]
*[[SI Units]]
*[[Heat Capacity]]
*[[Specific Heat]]
*[[Wavelength]]
*[[Conductivity]]
*[[Malleability]]
*[[Ductility]]
*[[Weight]]
*[[Boiling Point]]
*[[Melting Point]]
*[[Inertia]]
*[[Non-Newtonian Fluids]]
*[[Ferrofluids]]
*[[Color]]
*[[Temperature]]
*[[Plasma]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Contact Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Young's Modulus]]
* [[Friction]]
* [[Static Friction]]
* [[Tension]]
* [[Hooke's Law]]
*[[Centripetal Force and Curving Motion]]
*[[Compression or Normal Force]]
* [[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]]
* [[Speed of Sound in Solids]]
* [[Iterative Prediction of Spring-Mass System]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Vectors]]
* [[Kinematics]]
* [[Conservation of Momentum]]
* [[Predicting Change in multiple dimensions]]
* [[Derivation of the Momentum Principle]]
* [[Momentum Principle]]
* [[Impulse Momentum]]
* [[Curving Motion]]
* [[Projectile Motion]]
* [[Multi-particle Analysis of Momentum]]
* [[Iterative Prediction]]
* [[Analytical Prediction]]
* [[Newton's Laws and Linear Momentum]]
* [[Net Force]]
* [[Center of Mass]]
* [[Momentum at High Speeds]]
* [[Change in Momentum in Time for Curving Motion]]
* [[Momentum with respect to external Forces]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Angular Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[The Moments of Inertia]]
* [[Moment of Inertia for a cylinder]]
* [[Rotation]]
* [[Torque]]
* [[Systems with Zero Torque]]
[[Systems with Zero Torque*]]
* [[Systems with Nonzero Torque]]
* [[Torque vs Work]]
* [[Angular Impulse]]
* [[Right Hand Rule]]
* [[Angular Velocity]]
* [[Predicting the Position of a Rotating System]]
* [[Translational Angular Momentum]]
* [[The Angular Momentum Principle]]
* [[Angular Momentum of Multiparticle Systems]]
* [[Rotational Angular Momentum]]
* [[Total Angular Momentum]]
* [[Gyroscopes]]
* [[Angular Momentum Compared to Linear Momentum]]
*[[Torque 2]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Energy===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]]
*[[Photons]]
*[[The Energy Principle]]
*[[Predicting Change]]
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]
*[[Kinetic Energy]]
*[[Potential Energy]]
**[[Potential Energy for a Magnetic Dipole]]
**[[Potential Energy of a Multiparticle System]]
**[[Graviational Potential Energy]]
*[[Work]]
**[[Work Done By A Nonconstant Force]]
*[[Work and Energy for an Extended System]]
*[[Thermal Energy]]
*[[Conservation of Energy]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
*[[Energy Transfer due to a Temperature Difference]]
*[[Gravitational Potential Energy]]
*[[Point Particle Systems]]
*[[Real Systems]]
*[[Spring Potential Energy]]
**[[Ball and Spring Model]]
*[[Internal Energy]]
**[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]
*[[Translational, Rotational and Vibrational Energy]]
*[[Franck-Hertz Experiment]]
*[[Power (Mechanical)]]
*[[Transformation of Energy]]

*[[Energy Graphs]]
**[[Energy graphs and the Bohr model]]
*[[Air Resistance]]
*[[Electronic Energy Levels]]
*[[Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy]]
*[[Specific Heat Capacity]]
*[[The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution]]
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]
*[[Energy Density]]
*[[Bohr Model]]
*[[Quantized energy levels]]
**[[Spontaneous Photon Emission]]
*[[Path Independence of Electric Potential]]
*[[Energy in a Circuit]]
*[[The Photovoltaic Effect]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Collisions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
[[File:opener.png]]

*[[Collisions]]
Collisions are events that happen very frequently in our day-to-day world. In the realm of Physics, a collision is defined as any sort of process in which before and after a short time interval there is little interaction, but during that short time interval there are large interactions. When looking at collisions, it is first important to understand two very important principles: the Momentum Principle and the Energy Principle. Both principles serve use when talking of collisions because they provide a way in which to analyze these collisions. Collisions themselves can be categorized into 3 main different types: elastic collisions, inelastic collisions, maximally inelastic collisions. All 3 collisions will get touched on in more detail further on.
[[File:pe.png]]

*[[Elastic Collisions]]
A collision is deemed "elastic" when the internal energy of the objects in the system does not change (in other words, change in internal energy equals 0). Because in an elastic collision no kinetic energy is converted over to internal energy, in any elastic collision Kfinal always equals Kinitial.
[[File:Elco.png]]

*[[Inelastic Collisions]]
A collision is said to be "inelastic" when it is not elastic; therefore, an inelastic collision is an interaction in which some change in internal energy occurs between the colliding objects (in other words, change in internal energy does not equal 0). Examples of such changes that occur between colliding objects include, but are not limited to, things like they get hot, or they vibrate/rotate, or they deform. Because some of the kinetic energy is converted to internal energy during an inelastic collision, Kfinal does not equal Kinitial.
There are a few characteristics that one can search for when identifying inelasticity. These indications include things such as:
*Objects stick together after the collision
*An object is in an excited state after the collision
*An object becomes deformed after the collision
*The objects become hotter after the collision
*There exists more vibration or rotation after the collision
[[File:inve.gif]]

*[[Maximally Inelastic Collision]]
Maximally inelastic collisions, also known as "sticking collisions", are the most extreme kinds of inelastic collisions. Just as its secondary name implies, a maximally inelastic collision is one in which the colliding objects stick together creating maximum dissipation. This does not automatically mean that the colliding objects stop dead because the law of conservation of momentum. In a maximally inelastic collision, the remaining kinetic energy is present only because total momentum can't change and must be conserved.
[[File:inel.gif]]

*[[Head-on Collision of Equal Masses]]
The easiest way to understand this phenomenon is to look at it through an example. In this case, we can analyze it through the common game of billiards. Taking the two, equally massed billiard balls as the system, we can neglect the small frictional force exerted on the balls by the billiard table. The Momentum Principle states that in this head-on collision of billiard balls the total final momentum in the x direction must equal the total initial momentum. However, this alone does not give us the knowledge to know how the momentum will be divided up between the two balls. Considering the law of conservation of energy, we can more accurately depict what will happen. This will also allow for one to identify what kind of collision occurs (elastic, inelastic, or maximally inelastic). It is important to know that head-on collisions of equal masses do not have a definite type of collision associated with it.
[[File:momentum-real-life-applications-2895.jpg]] [[File:8ball.gif]]

*[[Head-on Collision of Unequal Masses]]
Just as with head-on collisions of equal masses, it is easy to understand head-on collisions of unequal masses by viewing it through an example. Let's take for example two balls of unequal masses like a ping-pong ball and a bowling ball. For the purpose of this example (so as to allow for no friction and no other significant external forces), let's imagine these objects collide in outer space inside an orbiting spacecraft. If there were to be a collision between the two, what would one expect to happen? One could expect to see the ping-pong ball collide with the bowling ball and bounce straight back with a very small change of speed. What one might not expect as much is that the bowling ball also moves, just very slowly. Again, this can all be explained through the conservation of momentum and the conservation of energy.
[[File:mi3e.jpg]]

*[[Frame of Reference]]
In the world of Physics, a frame of reference is the perspective from which a system is observed. It can be stationary or sometimes it can even be moving at a constant velocity. In some rare cases, the frame of reference moves at an nonconstant velocity and is deemed "noninertial" meaning the basic laws of physics do not apply. Continuing with the trend of examples, pretend you are at a train station observing trains as they pass by. From your stationary frame of reference, you observe that the passenger on the train is moving at the same velocity as the train. However, from a moving frame of reference, say from the eyes of the train conductor, he would view the train passengers as "anchored" to the train.
[[File:train.png]]

*[[Scattering: Collisions in 2D and 3D]]
Experiments that involve scattering are often used to study the structure and behavior of atoms, nuclei, as well as of other small particles. In an experiment like such, a beam of particles collides with other particles. If it is an atomic or nuclear collision, we are unable to observe the curving trajectories inside the tiny region of interaction. Instead, we can only truly observe the trajectories before and after the collision. This is only possible because the particles are at a farther distance apart and have a very weak mutual interaction; this essentially means that the particles are moving almost in a straight line. A good example which demonstrates scattering is the collision between an alpha particle (the nucleus of a helium atom) and the nucleus of a gold atom. One will understand this phenomenon more in depth after first understanding the Rutherford Experiment which will get touched on later.

*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]
In England in 1911, a famous experiment was performed by a group of scientists led by Mr. Ernest Rutherford. This experiment, later known as "The Rutherford Experiment", was a tremendous breakthrough for its time because it led to the discovery of the nucleus inside the atom. Rutherford's experiment involved the scattering of a high-speed alpha particle (now known as a helium nuclei - 2 protons and 2 neutrons) as it was shot at a thin gold foil (consisting of a nuclei with 79 protons and 118 neutrons). In the experiment, Rutherford and his team discovered that the velocity of the alpha particles was not high enough to allow the particles to make actual contact with the gold nucleus. Although they never actually made contact, it is still deemed a collision because there exists a sizable force between the alpha particle and the gold nucleus over a very short period of time. In conclusion, we say the alpha particle is "scattered" by its interaction with the nucleus of a gold atom and experiments like such are called "scattering" experiments.
[[File:ruthef.jpg]]

*[[Coefficient of Restitution]]
The coefficient of restitution is a measure of the elasticity in a collision. It is the ratio of the differences in velocities before and after the collision. The coefficient is evaluated by taking the difference in the velocities of the colliding objects after the collision and dividing by the difference in the velocities of the colliding objects before the collision.

All of the following information was collected from the Matter and Interactions 4th Edition physics textbook. The book is cited as follows...

Chabay, Ruth W., and Bruce A. Sherwood. "Chapter 10: Collisions." Matter & Interactions. Fourth Edition ed. Wiley, 2015. 383-409. Print.

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Fields===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Electric Field]] of a
** [[Point Charge]]
** [[Electric Dipole]]
** [[Capacitor]]
** [[Charged Rod]]
** [[Charged Ring]]
** [[Charged Disk]]
** [[Charged Spherical Shell]]
** [[integrating the spherical shell]]
** [[Charged Cylinder]]
**[[A Solid Sphere Charged Throughout Its Volume]]
*[[Charge Density]]
*[[Superposition Principle]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
**[[Potential Difference Path Independence]]
**[[Potential Difference in a Uniform Field]]
**[[Potential Difference of point charge in a non-Uniform Field]]
**[[Potential Difference at One Location]]
**[[Sign of Potential Difference]]
**[[Potential Difference in an Insulator]]
**[[Energy Density and Electric Field]]
** [[Systems of Charged Objects]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Polarization]]
**[[Polarization of an Atom]]
**[[Charged Conductor and Charged Insulator]]
**[[Polarization and Drift Speed]]
*[[Charge Motion in Metals]]
*[[Charge Transfer]]
**[[Electrostatic Discharge]]
*[[Magnetic Field]]
**[[Right-Hand Rule]]
**[[Direction of Magnetic Field]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Wire]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Loop]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Solenoid]]
**[[Bar Magnet]]
**[[Magnetic Dipole Moment]]
***[[Stern-Gerlach Experiment]]
**[[Magnetic Torque]]
**[[Magnetic Force]]
***[[Applying Magnetic Force to Currents]]
**[[Earth's Magnetic Field]]
**[[Atomic Structure of Magnets]]
*[[Combining Electric and Magnetic Forces]]
**[[Hall Effect]]
**[[Lorentz Force]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law for Currents]]
**[[Integration Techniques for Magnetic Field]]
**[[Sparks in Air]]
**[[Motional Emf]]
**[[Detecting a Magnetic Field]]
**[[Moving Point Charge]]
**[[Non-Coulomb Electric Field]]
**[[Electric Motors]]
**[[Solenoid Applications]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Simple Circuits===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Components]]
*[[Steady State]]
*[[Non Steady State]]
*[[Charging and Discharging a Capacitor]]
*[[Work and Power In A Circuit]]
*[[Thin and Thick Wires]]
*[[Node Rule]]
*[[Loop Rule]]
*[[Resistivity]]
*[[Power in a circuit]]
*[[Ammeters,Voltmeters,Ohmmeters]]
*[[Current]]
**[[AC]]
*[[Ohm's Law]]
*[[Series Circuits]]
*[[Parallel Circuits]]
*[[RC]]
*[[Parallel Circuits vs. Series Circuits]]
*[[AC vs DC]]
**[[Rectification (Converting AC to DC)]]
*[[Charge in a RC Circuit]]
*[[Current in a RC circuit]]
*[[Circular Loop of Wire]]
*[[Current in a RL Circuit]]
*[[RL Circuit]]
*[[Feedback]]
*[[Transformers (Circuits)]]
*[[Resistors and Conductivity]]
*[[Semiconductor Devices]]
*[[Insulators]]
*[[Voltage]]
*[[Batteries]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Maxwell's Equations===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Gauss's Flux Theorem]]
**[[Electric Fields]]
***[[Examples of Flux Through Surfaces and Objects]]
**[[Magnetic Fields]]
**[[Proof of Gauss's Law]]
*[[Ampere's Law]]
**[[Magnetic Field of Coaxial Cable Using Ampere's Law]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Long Thick Wire Using Ampere's Law]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Toroid Using Ampere's Law]]
**[[The Differential Form of Ampere's Law]]
*[[Faraday's Law]]
**[[Curly Electric Fields]]
**[[Inductance]]
***[[Transformers (Physics)]]
***[[Energy Density]]
**[[Lenz's Law]]
***[[Lenz Effect and the Jumping Ring]]
**[[Lenz's Rule]]
**[[Motional Emf using Faraday's Law]]
*[[Ampere-Maxwell Law]]
*[[Superconductors]]
**[[Meissner effect]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Radiation===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Producing a Radiative Electric Field]]
*[[Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Radiaton]]
*[[Lenses]]
*[[Energy and Momentum Analysis in Radiation]]
**[[Poynting Vector]]
*[[Electromagnetic Propagation]]
**[[Wavelength and Frequency]]
*[[Snell's Law]]
*[[Effects of Radiation on Matter]]
*[[Light Propagation Through a Medium]]
*[[Light Scaterring: Why is the Sky Blue]]
*[[Light Refraction: Bending of light]]
*[[Cherenkov Radiation]]
*[[Rayleigh Effect]]
*[[Image Formation]]
</div>
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Sound===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Doppler Effect]]
*[[Nature, Behavior, and Properties of Sound]]
*[[Speed of Sound]]
*[[Resonance]]
*[[Sound Barrier]]
*[[Sound Propagation in Water]]
</div>
</div>
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Waves===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Bragg's Law]]
*[[Standing waves]]
*[[Gravitational waves]]
*[[Plasma waves]]
*[[Wave-Particle Duality]]
*[[Electromagnetic Spectrum]]
*[[Color Light Wave]]
*[[Rayleigh Wave]]
*[[Pendulum Motion]]
*[[Transverse and Longitudinal Waves]]
*[[Planck's Relation]]
*[[interference]]
*[[Polarization of Waves]]
*[[Angular Resolution]]
</div>
</div>
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===Real Life Applications of Electromagnetic Principles===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Electromagnetic Junkyard Cranes]]
*[[Maglev Trains]]
*[[Spark Plugs]]
*[[Metal Detectors]]
*[[Speakers]]
*[[Radios]]
*[[Ampullae of Lorenzini]]
*[[Electrocytes]]
*[[Generator]]
*[[Using Capacitors to Measure Fluid Level]]
*[[Cyclotron]]
*[[Railgun]]
*[[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]]
*[[Electric Eels]]
*[[Windshield Wipers]]
*[[Galvanic Cells]]
*[[Magnetoreception]]
*[[Memory Storage Devices]]
*[[Electric Pickups]]
*[[Lightning]]

</div>
</div>

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===Optics===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Mirrors]]
*[[Refraction]]
*[[Quantum Properties of Light]]
*[[Lasers]]
*[[Lenses]]
*[[Dispersion and Scattering]]

</div>
</div>

== Resources ==
* Commonly used wiki commands [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cheatsheet Wiki Cheatsheet]
* A guide to representing equations in math mode [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Displaying_a_formula Wiki Math Mode]
* A page to keep track of all the physics [[Constants]]
* A page for review of [[Vectors]] and vector operations