Physics Book - User contributions [en]

Superconductors

2015-12-01T17:13:18Z

Slee:

Superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== About Superconductors ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]

Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

'''Futuristic Technology like Hover boards'''- through a phenomena called Quantum Levitation, superconductors can be used to create things that levitate- the superconductor will float easily above a magnet. This could be potentially used for all sorts of levitation devices like cars, hoverboards, or stuff we can't even imagine yet. To read more about [[Quantum Levitation, click here]].

[[File:hoverboardsavannah.jpg]]

Photo curtesy of http://www.blastr.com/2015-5-22/watch-guy-break-world-record-longest-hoverboard-flight-ever

'''Cool cell phones'''- current never disappears in a superconducting loop of metal, so technology with superconducting metal would never run out of power, but continue to be charged forever. This could cut down on electricity usage worldwide, allowing for some serious energy savings.

'''medicine'''- superconductors have uses in MRI machines and NMR machines, both which can be used in modern medicine to help diagnose various medical conditions. Superconducting magnets are used to form a strong magnetic field around the person, switching on and off to create the thumping sound of the machine. The machines do require lots of liquid helium to keep temperatures well below the Tc for a given metal in use.

== Further Reading ==

[[Superconductors Type 1]]

[[Superconductors Type 2]]

[[Futuristic Technology and Superconductors]]

[[List of corresponding Superconductors and their Tc and Hc constants]]

== Why this matters to me ==

I'm a chemical engineer and love the idea of coming up with solutions that will help out our future when it comes to life on earth. Superconductors could be the solutions to lots of problems having to deal with energy, which really excites me. I also love chemistry and know a lot about superconductors from a chemistry perspective, but wanted to add some physics knowledge to my collection.

Main Page

2015-12-01T00:32:08Z

Slee: /* Maxwell's Equations */

__NOTOC__
Welcome to the Georgia Tech Wiki for Intro Physics. This resources was created so that students can contribute and curate content to help those with limited or no access to a textbook. When reading this website, please correct any errors you may come across. If you read something that isn't clear, please consider revising it!

Looking to make a contribution?
#Pick a specific topic from intro physics
#Add that topic, as a link to a new page, under the appropriate category listed below by editing this page.
#Copy and paste the default [[Template]] into your new page and start editing.

Please remember that this is not a textbook and you are not limited to expressing your ideas with only text and equations. Whenever possible embed: pictures, videos, diagrams, simulations, computational models (e.g. Glowscript), and whatever content you think makes learning physics easier for other students.

== Source Material ==
All of the content added to this resource must be in the public domain or similar free resource. If you are unsure about a source, contact the original author for permission. That said, there is a surprisingly large amount of introductory physics content scattered across the web. Here is an incomplete list of intro physics resources (please update as needed).
* A physics resource written by experts for an expert audience [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics Physics Portal]
* A wiki book on modern physics [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Modern_Physics Modern Physics Wiki]
* The MIT open courseware for intro physics [http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-8-002-a-wikitextbook-for-introductory-mechanics-fall-2009/index.htm MITOCW Wiki]
* An online concept map of intro physics [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html HyperPhysics]
* Interactive physics simulations [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics PhET]
* OpenStax algebra based intro physics textbook [https://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/college-physics College Physics]
* The Open Source Physics project is a collection of online physics resources [http://www.opensourcephysics.org/ OSP]
* A resource guide compiled by the [http://www.aapt.org/ AAPT] for educators [http://www.compadre.org/ ComPADRE]

== Organizing Categories ==
These are the broad, overarching categories, that we cover in two semester of introductory physics. You can add subcategories or make a new category as needed. A single topic should direct readers to a page in one of these catagories.

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
===Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Kinds of Matter]]
*[[Detecting Interactions]]
*[[Fundamental Interactions]]
*[[System & Surroundings]]
*[[Newton's First Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Second Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Third Law of Motion]]
*[[Gravitational Force]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Terminal Speed]]
*[[Simple Harmonic Motion]]
*[[Speed and Velocity]]
*[[Electric Polarization]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Theory===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]
*[[Quantum Theory]]
*[[Big Bang Theory]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Notable Scientists===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]
*[[Joseph Henry]]
*[[Michael Faraday]]
*[[J.J. Thomson]]
*[[James Maxwell]]
*[[Robert Hooke]]
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
*[[Nikola Tesla]]
*[[Andre Marie Ampere]]
*[[Sir Isaac Newton]]
*[[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
*[[Oliver Heaviside]]
*[[Rosalind Franklin]]
*[[Erwin Schrödinger]]
*[[Enrico Fermi]]
*[[Robert J. Van de Graaff]]
*[[Charles de Coulomb]]
*[[Hans Christian Ørsted]]
*[[Philo Farnsworth]]
*[[Niels Bohr]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Galileo Galilei]]
*[[Gustav Kirchhoff]]
*[[Max Planck]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Edwin Hall]]
*[[James Watt]]
*[[Count Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Josiah Willard Gibbs]]
*[[Richard Phillips Feynman]]
*[[Sir David Brewster]]
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]]
*[[William Thomson]]
*[[Leonhard Euler]]
*[[Robert Fox Bacher]]
*[[Stephen Hawking]]
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]]
*[[Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Properties of Matter===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Mass]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Relative Velocity]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Charge]]
*[[Spin]]
*[[SI Units]]
*[[Heat Capacity]]
*[[Specific Heat]]
*[[Wavelength]]
*[[Conductivity]]
*[[Weight]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Contact Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Young's Modulus]]
* [[Friction]]
* [[Tension]]
* [[Hooke's Law]]
*[[Centripetal Force and Curving Motion]]
*[[Compression or Normal Force]]
* [[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Vectors]]
* [[Kinematics]]
* [[Conservation of Momentum]]
* [[Predicting Change in multiple dimensions]]
* [[Momentum Principle]]
* [[Impulse Momentum]]
* [[Curving Motion]]
* [[Multi-particle Analysis of Momentum]]
* [[Iterative Prediction]]
* [[Newton's Laws and Linear Momentum]]
* [[Net Force]]
* [[Center of Mass]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Angular Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[The Moments of Inertia]]
* [[Moment of Inertia for a ring]]
* [[Rotation]]
* [[Torque]]
* [[Systems with Zero Torque]]
* [[Systems with Nonzero Torque]]
* [[Right Hand Rule]]
* [[Angular Velocity]]
* [[Predicting a Change in Rotation]]
* [[The Angular Momentum Principle]]
* [[Rotational Angular Momentum]]
* [[Total Angular Momentum]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Energy===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[The Energy Principle]]
*[[Predicting Change]]
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]
*[[Kinetic Energy]]
*[[Potential Energy]]
*[[Work]]
*[[Thermal Energy]]
*[[Conservation of Energy]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
*[[Energy Transfer due to a Temperature Difference]]
*[[Gravitational Potential Energy]]
*[[Point Particle Systems]]
*[[Real Systems]]
*[[Spring Potential Energy]]
*[[Internal Energy]]
**[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]
*[[Translational, Rotational and Vibrational Energy]]
*[[Franck-Hertz Experiment]]
*[[Power]]
*[[Energy Graphs]]
*[[Air Resistance]]
*[[Electronic Energy Levels]]
*[[Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy]]
*[[Specific Heat Capacity]]
*[[Quantized Energy Levels]]
*[[Energy Density]]
*[[Relativistic Kinetic Energy]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Collisions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Collisions]]
*[[Maximally Inelastic Collision]]
*[[Elastic Collisions]]
*[[Inelastic Collisions]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Equal Masses]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Unequal Masses]]
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Fields===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Electric Field]] of a
** [[Point Charge]]
** [[Electric Dipole]]
** [[Capacitor]]
** [[Charged Rod]]
** [[Charged Ring]]
** [[Charged Disk]]
** [[Charged Spherical Shell]]
** [[Charged Cylinder]]
**[[A Solid Sphere Charged Throughout Its Volume]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
**[[Potential Difference in a Uniform Field]]
**[[Potential Difference of point charge in a non-Uniform Field]]
**[[Sign of Potential Difference]]
**[[Potential Difference in an Insulator]]
**[[Energy Density and Electric Field]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Polarization]]
*[[Charge Motion in Metals]]
*[[Magnetic Field]]
**[[Right-Hand Rule]]
**[[Direction of Magnetic Field]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Wire]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Loop]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Solenoid]]
**[[Bar Magnet]]
**[[Magnetic Force]]
**[[Hall Effect]]
**[[Lorentz Force]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law for Currents]]
**[[Integration Techniques for Magnetic Field]]
**[[Sparks in Air]]
**[[Motional Emf]]
**[[Detecting a Magnetic Field]]
**[[Moving Point Charge]]
**[[Non-Coulomb Electric Field]]
**[[Motors and Generators]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Simple Circuits===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Components]]
*[[Steady State]]
*[[Non Steady State]]
*[[Node Rule]]
*[[Loop Rule]]
*[[Power in a circuit]]
*[[Ammeters,Voltmeters,Ohmmeters]]
*[[Current]]
*[[Ohm's Law]]
*[[Series Circuits]]
*[[RC]]
*[[Circular Loop of Wire]]
*[[RL Circuit]]
*[[LC Circuit]]
*[[Surface Charge Distributions]]
*[[Feedback]]
*[[Transformers]]
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Maxwell's Equations===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Gauss's Flux Theorem]]
**[[Electric Fields]]
**[[Magnetic Fields]]
*[[Ampere's Law]]
**[[Magnetic Field of Coaxial Cable Using Ampere's Law]]
*[[Faraday's Law]]
**[[Curly Electric Fields]]
**[[Inductance]]
**[[Lenz's Law]]
***[[Lenz Effect and the Jumping Ring]]
**[[Motional Emf using Faraday's Law]]
*[[Ampere-Maxwell Law]]
*[[Superconductors]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Radiation===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Producing a Radiative Electric Field]]
*[[Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Radiaton]]
*[[Lenses]]
*[[Energy and Momentum Analysis in Radiation]]
*[[Electromagnetic Propagation]]
*[[Snell's Law]]
*[[Light Propagation Through a Medium]]
*[[Light Scaterring: Why is the Sky Blue]]
</div>
</div>
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Sound===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Doppler Effect]]
*[[Nature, Behavior, and Properties of Sound]]
*[[Resonance]]
*[[Sound Barrier]]
</div>
</div>
*[[blahb]]
</div>
</div>

== Resources ==
* Commonly used wiki commands [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cheatsheet Wiki Cheatsheet]
* A guide to representing equations in math mode [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Displaying_a_formula Wiki Math Mode]
* A page to keep track of all the physics [[Constants]]
* An overview of [[VPython]]

Main Page

2015-12-01T00:31:41Z

Slee: /* Maxwell's Equations */

__NOTOC__
Welcome to the Georgia Tech Wiki for Intro Physics. This resources was created so that students can contribute and curate content to help those with limited or no access to a textbook. When reading this website, please correct any errors you may come across. If you read something that isn't clear, please consider revising it!

Looking to make a contribution?
#Pick a specific topic from intro physics
#Add that topic, as a link to a new page, under the appropriate category listed below by editing this page.
#Copy and paste the default [[Template]] into your new page and start editing.

Please remember that this is not a textbook and you are not limited to expressing your ideas with only text and equations. Whenever possible embed: pictures, videos, diagrams, simulations, computational models (e.g. Glowscript), and whatever content you think makes learning physics easier for other students.

== Source Material ==
All of the content added to this resource must be in the public domain or similar free resource. If you are unsure about a source, contact the original author for permission. That said, there is a surprisingly large amount of introductory physics content scattered across the web. Here is an incomplete list of intro physics resources (please update as needed).
* A physics resource written by experts for an expert audience [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics Physics Portal]
* A wiki book on modern physics [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Modern_Physics Modern Physics Wiki]
* The MIT open courseware for intro physics [http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-8-002-a-wikitextbook-for-introductory-mechanics-fall-2009/index.htm MITOCW Wiki]
* An online concept map of intro physics [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html HyperPhysics]
* Interactive physics simulations [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics PhET]
* OpenStax algebra based intro physics textbook [https://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/college-physics College Physics]
* The Open Source Physics project is a collection of online physics resources [http://www.opensourcephysics.org/ OSP]
* A resource guide compiled by the [http://www.aapt.org/ AAPT] for educators [http://www.compadre.org/ ComPADRE]

== Organizing Categories ==
These are the broad, overarching categories, that we cover in two semester of introductory physics. You can add subcategories or make a new category as needed. A single topic should direct readers to a page in one of these catagories.

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
===Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Kinds of Matter]]
*[[Detecting Interactions]]
*[[Fundamental Interactions]]
*[[System & Surroundings]]
*[[Newton's First Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Second Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Third Law of Motion]]
*[[Gravitational Force]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Terminal Speed]]
*[[Simple Harmonic Motion]]
*[[Speed and Velocity]]
*[[Electric Polarization]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Theory===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]
*[[Quantum Theory]]
*[[Big Bang Theory]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Notable Scientists===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]
*[[Joseph Henry]]
*[[Michael Faraday]]
*[[J.J. Thomson]]
*[[James Maxwell]]
*[[Robert Hooke]]
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
*[[Nikola Tesla]]
*[[Andre Marie Ampere]]
*[[Sir Isaac Newton]]
*[[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
*[[Oliver Heaviside]]
*[[Rosalind Franklin]]
*[[Erwin Schrödinger]]
*[[Enrico Fermi]]
*[[Robert J. Van de Graaff]]
*[[Charles de Coulomb]]
*[[Hans Christian Ørsted]]
*[[Philo Farnsworth]]
*[[Niels Bohr]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Galileo Galilei]]
*[[Gustav Kirchhoff]]
*[[Max Planck]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Edwin Hall]]
*[[James Watt]]
*[[Count Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Josiah Willard Gibbs]]
*[[Richard Phillips Feynman]]
*[[Sir David Brewster]]
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]]
*[[William Thomson]]
*[[Leonhard Euler]]
*[[Robert Fox Bacher]]
*[[Stephen Hawking]]
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]]
*[[Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Properties of Matter===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Mass]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Relative Velocity]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Charge]]
*[[Spin]]
*[[SI Units]]
*[[Heat Capacity]]
*[[Specific Heat]]
*[[Wavelength]]
*[[Conductivity]]
*[[Weight]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Contact Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Young's Modulus]]
* [[Friction]]
* [[Tension]]
* [[Hooke's Law]]
*[[Centripetal Force and Curving Motion]]
*[[Compression or Normal Force]]
* [[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Vectors]]
* [[Kinematics]]
* [[Conservation of Momentum]]
* [[Predicting Change in multiple dimensions]]
* [[Momentum Principle]]
* [[Impulse Momentum]]
* [[Curving Motion]]
* [[Multi-particle Analysis of Momentum]]
* [[Iterative Prediction]]
* [[Newton's Laws and Linear Momentum]]
* [[Net Force]]
* [[Center of Mass]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Angular Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[The Moments of Inertia]]
* [[Moment of Inertia for a ring]]
* [[Rotation]]
* [[Torque]]
* [[Systems with Zero Torque]]
* [[Systems with Nonzero Torque]]
* [[Right Hand Rule]]
* [[Angular Velocity]]
* [[Predicting a Change in Rotation]]
* [[The Angular Momentum Principle]]
* [[Rotational Angular Momentum]]
* [[Total Angular Momentum]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Energy===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[The Energy Principle]]
*[[Predicting Change]]
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]
*[[Kinetic Energy]]
*[[Potential Energy]]
*[[Work]]
*[[Thermal Energy]]
*[[Conservation of Energy]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
*[[Energy Transfer due to a Temperature Difference]]
*[[Gravitational Potential Energy]]
*[[Point Particle Systems]]
*[[Real Systems]]
*[[Spring Potential Energy]]
*[[Internal Energy]]
**[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]
*[[Translational, Rotational and Vibrational Energy]]
*[[Franck-Hertz Experiment]]
*[[Power]]
*[[Energy Graphs]]
*[[Air Resistance]]
*[[Electronic Energy Levels]]
*[[Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy]]
*[[Specific Heat Capacity]]
*[[Quantized Energy Levels]]
*[[Energy Density]]
*[[Relativistic Kinetic Energy]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Collisions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Collisions]]
*[[Maximally Inelastic Collision]]
*[[Elastic Collisions]]
*[[Inelastic Collisions]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Equal Masses]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Unequal Masses]]
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Fields===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Electric Field]] of a
** [[Point Charge]]
** [[Electric Dipole]]
** [[Capacitor]]
** [[Charged Rod]]
** [[Charged Ring]]
** [[Charged Disk]]
** [[Charged Spherical Shell]]
** [[Charged Cylinder]]
**[[A Solid Sphere Charged Throughout Its Volume]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
**[[Potential Difference in a Uniform Field]]
**[[Potential Difference of point charge in a non-Uniform Field]]
**[[Sign of Potential Difference]]
**[[Potential Difference in an Insulator]]
**[[Energy Density and Electric Field]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Polarization]]
*[[Charge Motion in Metals]]
*[[Magnetic Field]]
**[[Right-Hand Rule]]
**[[Direction of Magnetic Field]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Wire]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Loop]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Solenoid]]
**[[Bar Magnet]]
**[[Magnetic Force]]
**[[Hall Effect]]
**[[Lorentz Force]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law for Currents]]
**[[Integration Techniques for Magnetic Field]]
**[[Sparks in Air]]
**[[Motional Emf]]
**[[Detecting a Magnetic Field]]
**[[Moving Point Charge]]
**[[Non-Coulomb Electric Field]]
**[[Motors and Generators]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Simple Circuits===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Components]]
*[[Steady State]]
*[[Non Steady State]]
*[[Node Rule]]
*[[Loop Rule]]
*[[Power in a circuit]]
*[[Ammeters,Voltmeters,Ohmmeters]]
*[[Current]]
*[[Ohm's Law]]
*[[Series Circuits]]
*[[RC]]
*[[Circular Loop of Wire]]
*[[RL Circuit]]
*[[LC Circuit]]
*[[Surface Charge Distributions]]
*[[Feedback]]
*[[Transformers]]
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Maxwell's Equations===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Gauss's Flux Theorem]]
**[[Electric Fields]]
**[[Magnetic Fields]]
*[[Ampere's Law]]
**[[Magnetic Field of Coaxial Cable Using Ampere's Law]]
*[[Faraday's Law]]
**[[Curly Electric Fields]]
**[[Inductance]]
**[[Lenz's Law]]
***[[Lenz Effect and the Jumping Ring]]
**[[Motional Emf using Faraday's Law]]
*[[Ampere-Maxwell Law]]
[[Superconductors]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Radiation===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Producing a Radiative Electric Field]]
*[[Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Radiaton]]
*[[Lenses]]
*[[Energy and Momentum Analysis in Radiation]]
*[[Electromagnetic Propagation]]
*[[Snell's Law]]
*[[Light Propagation Through a Medium]]
*[[Light Scaterring: Why is the Sky Blue]]
</div>
</div>
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Sound===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Doppler Effect]]
*[[Nature, Behavior, and Properties of Sound]]
*[[Resonance]]
*[[Sound Barrier]]
</div>
</div>
*[[blahb]]
</div>
</div>

== Resources ==
* Commonly used wiki commands [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cheatsheet Wiki Cheatsheet]
* A guide to representing equations in math mode [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Displaying_a_formula Wiki Math Mode]
* A page to keep track of all the physics [[Constants]]
* An overview of [[VPython]]

Superconductors

2015-12-01T00:30:48Z

Slee: Created page with "A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian. Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as m..."

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

Superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== About Superconductors ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]

Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

'''Futuristic Technology like Hover boards'''- through a phenomena called Quantum Levitation, superconductors can be used to create things that levitate- the superconductor will float easily above a magnet. This could be potentially used for all sorts of levitation devices like cars, hoverboards, or stuff we can't even imagine yet. To read more about [[Quantum Levitation, click here]].

[[File:hoverboardsavannah.jpg]]

Photo curtesy of http://www.blastr.com/2015-5-22/watch-guy-break-world-record-longest-hoverboard-flight-ever

'''Cool cell phones'''- current never disappears in a superconducting loop of metal, so technology with superconducting metal would never run out of power, but continue to be charged forever. This could cut down on electricity usage worldwide, allowing for some serious energy savings.

'''medicine'''- superconductors have uses in MRI machines and NMR machines, both which can be used in modern medicine to help diagnose various medical conditions. Superconducting magnets are used to form a strong magnetic field around the person, switching on and off to create the thumping sound of the machine. The machines do require lots of liquid helium to keep temperatures well below the Tc for a given metal in use.

== Further Reading ==

[[Superconductors Type 1]]

[[Superconductors Type 2]]

[[Futuristic Technology and Superconductors]]

[[List of corresponding Superconductors and their Tc and Hc constants]]

== Why this matters to me ==

I'm a chemical engineer and love the idea of coming up with solutions that will help out our future when it comes to life on earth. Superconductors could be the solutions to lots of problems having to deal with energy, which really excites me. I also love chemistry and know a lot about superconductors from a chemistry perspective, but wanted to add some physics knowledge to my collection.

Main Page

2015-12-01T00:30:35Z

Slee: /* Maxwell's Equations */

__NOTOC__
Welcome to the Georgia Tech Wiki for Intro Physics. This resources was created so that students can contribute and curate content to help those with limited or no access to a textbook. When reading this website, please correct any errors you may come across. If you read something that isn't clear, please consider revising it!

Looking to make a contribution?
#Pick a specific topic from intro physics
#Add that topic, as a link to a new page, under the appropriate category listed below by editing this page.
#Copy and paste the default [[Template]] into your new page and start editing.

Please remember that this is not a textbook and you are not limited to expressing your ideas with only text and equations. Whenever possible embed: pictures, videos, diagrams, simulations, computational models (e.g. Glowscript), and whatever content you think makes learning physics easier for other students.

== Source Material ==
All of the content added to this resource must be in the public domain or similar free resource. If you are unsure about a source, contact the original author for permission. That said, there is a surprisingly large amount of introductory physics content scattered across the web. Here is an incomplete list of intro physics resources (please update as needed).
* A physics resource written by experts for an expert audience [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics Physics Portal]
* A wiki book on modern physics [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Modern_Physics Modern Physics Wiki]
* The MIT open courseware for intro physics [http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-8-002-a-wikitextbook-for-introductory-mechanics-fall-2009/index.htm MITOCW Wiki]
* An online concept map of intro physics [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html HyperPhysics]
* Interactive physics simulations [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics PhET]
* OpenStax algebra based intro physics textbook [https://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/college-physics College Physics]
* The Open Source Physics project is a collection of online physics resources [http://www.opensourcephysics.org/ OSP]
* A resource guide compiled by the [http://www.aapt.org/ AAPT] for educators [http://www.compadre.org/ ComPADRE]

== Organizing Categories ==
These are the broad, overarching categories, that we cover in two semester of introductory physics. You can add subcategories or make a new category as needed. A single topic should direct readers to a page in one of these catagories.

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
===Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Kinds of Matter]]
*[[Detecting Interactions]]
*[[Fundamental Interactions]]
*[[System & Surroundings]]
*[[Newton's First Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Second Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Third Law of Motion]]
*[[Gravitational Force]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Terminal Speed]]
*[[Simple Harmonic Motion]]
*[[Speed and Velocity]]
*[[Electric Polarization]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Theory===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]
*[[Quantum Theory]]
*[[Big Bang Theory]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Notable Scientists===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]
*[[Joseph Henry]]
*[[Michael Faraday]]
*[[J.J. Thomson]]
*[[James Maxwell]]
*[[Robert Hooke]]
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
*[[Nikola Tesla]]
*[[Andre Marie Ampere]]
*[[Sir Isaac Newton]]
*[[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
*[[Oliver Heaviside]]
*[[Rosalind Franklin]]
*[[Erwin Schrödinger]]
*[[Enrico Fermi]]
*[[Robert J. Van de Graaff]]
*[[Charles de Coulomb]]
*[[Hans Christian Ørsted]]
*[[Philo Farnsworth]]
*[[Niels Bohr]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Galileo Galilei]]
*[[Gustav Kirchhoff]]
*[[Max Planck]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Edwin Hall]]
*[[James Watt]]
*[[Count Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Josiah Willard Gibbs]]
*[[Richard Phillips Feynman]]
*[[Sir David Brewster]]
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]]
*[[William Thomson]]
*[[Leonhard Euler]]
*[[Robert Fox Bacher]]
*[[Stephen Hawking]]
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]]
*[[Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Properties of Matter===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Mass]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Relative Velocity]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Charge]]
*[[Spin]]
*[[SI Units]]
*[[Heat Capacity]]
*[[Specific Heat]]
*[[Wavelength]]
*[[Conductivity]]
*[[Weight]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Contact Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Young's Modulus]]
* [[Friction]]
* [[Tension]]
* [[Hooke's Law]]
*[[Centripetal Force and Curving Motion]]
*[[Compression or Normal Force]]
* [[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Vectors]]
* [[Kinematics]]
* [[Conservation of Momentum]]
* [[Predicting Change in multiple dimensions]]
* [[Momentum Principle]]
* [[Impulse Momentum]]
* [[Curving Motion]]
* [[Multi-particle Analysis of Momentum]]
* [[Iterative Prediction]]
* [[Newton's Laws and Linear Momentum]]
* [[Net Force]]
* [[Center of Mass]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Angular Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[The Moments of Inertia]]
* [[Moment of Inertia for a ring]]
* [[Rotation]]
* [[Torque]]
* [[Systems with Zero Torque]]
* [[Systems with Nonzero Torque]]
* [[Right Hand Rule]]
* [[Angular Velocity]]
* [[Predicting a Change in Rotation]]
* [[The Angular Momentum Principle]]
* [[Rotational Angular Momentum]]
* [[Total Angular Momentum]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Energy===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[The Energy Principle]]
*[[Predicting Change]]
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]
*[[Kinetic Energy]]
*[[Potential Energy]]
*[[Work]]
*[[Thermal Energy]]
*[[Conservation of Energy]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
*[[Energy Transfer due to a Temperature Difference]]
*[[Gravitational Potential Energy]]
*[[Point Particle Systems]]
*[[Real Systems]]
*[[Spring Potential Energy]]
*[[Internal Energy]]
**[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]
*[[Translational, Rotational and Vibrational Energy]]
*[[Franck-Hertz Experiment]]
*[[Power]]
*[[Energy Graphs]]
*[[Air Resistance]]
*[[Electronic Energy Levels]]
*[[Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy]]
*[[Specific Heat Capacity]]
*[[Quantized Energy Levels]]
*[[Energy Density]]
*[[Relativistic Kinetic Energy]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Collisions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Collisions]]
*[[Maximally Inelastic Collision]]
*[[Elastic Collisions]]
*[[Inelastic Collisions]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Equal Masses]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Unequal Masses]]
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Fields===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Electric Field]] of a
** [[Point Charge]]
** [[Electric Dipole]]
** [[Capacitor]]
** [[Charged Rod]]
** [[Charged Ring]]
** [[Charged Disk]]
** [[Charged Spherical Shell]]
** [[Charged Cylinder]]
**[[A Solid Sphere Charged Throughout Its Volume]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
**[[Potential Difference in a Uniform Field]]
**[[Potential Difference of point charge in a non-Uniform Field]]
**[[Sign of Potential Difference]]
**[[Potential Difference in an Insulator]]
**[[Energy Density and Electric Field]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Polarization]]
*[[Charge Motion in Metals]]
*[[Magnetic Field]]
**[[Right-Hand Rule]]
**[[Direction of Magnetic Field]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Wire]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Loop]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Solenoid]]
**[[Bar Magnet]]
**[[Magnetic Force]]
**[[Hall Effect]]
**[[Lorentz Force]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law for Currents]]
**[[Integration Techniques for Magnetic Field]]
**[[Sparks in Air]]
**[[Motional Emf]]
**[[Detecting a Magnetic Field]]
**[[Moving Point Charge]]
**[[Non-Coulomb Electric Field]]
**[[Motors and Generators]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Simple Circuits===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Components]]
*[[Steady State]]
*[[Non Steady State]]
*[[Node Rule]]
*[[Loop Rule]]
*[[Power in a circuit]]
*[[Ammeters,Voltmeters,Ohmmeters]]
*[[Current]]
*[[Ohm's Law]]
*[[Series Circuits]]
*[[RC]]
*[[Circular Loop of Wire]]
*[[RL Circuit]]
*[[LC Circuit]]
*[[Surface Charge Distributions]]
*[[Feedback]]
*[[Transformers]]
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Maxwell's Equations===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Gauss's Flux Theorem]]
**[[Electric Fields]]
**[[Magnetic Fields]]
*[[Ampere's Law]]
**[[Magnetic Field of Coaxial Cable Using Ampere's Law]]
*[[Faraday's Law]]
**[[Curly Electric Fields]]
**[[Inductance]]
**[[Lenz's Law]]
***[[Lenz Effect and the Jumping Ring]]
**[[Motional Emf using Faraday's Law]]
*[[Ampere-Maxwell Law]]
**[[Superconductors]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Radiation===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Producing a Radiative Electric Field]]
*[[Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Radiaton]]
*[[Lenses]]
*[[Energy and Momentum Analysis in Radiation]]
*[[Electromagnetic Propagation]]
*[[Snell's Law]]
*[[Light Propagation Through a Medium]]
*[[Light Scaterring: Why is the Sky Blue]]
</div>
</div>
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Sound===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Doppler Effect]]
*[[Nature, Behavior, and Properties of Sound]]
*[[Resonance]]
*[[Sound Barrier]]
</div>
</div>
*[[blahb]]
</div>
</div>

== Resources ==
* Commonly used wiki commands [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cheatsheet Wiki Cheatsheet]
* A guide to representing equations in math mode [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Displaying_a_formula Wiki Math Mode]
* A page to keep track of all the physics [[Constants]]
* An overview of [[VPython]]

Superconducters

2015-12-01T00:28:30Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T22:37:38Z

Slee: /* Applications of Superconductors */

List of corresponding Superconductors and their Tc and Hc constants

2015-11-30T22:34:44Z

Slee: Created page with "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_superconductors"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_superconductors

Futuristic Technology and Superconductors

2015-11-30T22:34:33Z

Slee: Created page with "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_applications_of_superconductivity"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_applications_of_superconductivity

Superconductors Type 2

2015-11-30T22:34:23Z

Slee: Created page with "http://www.superconductors.org/type2.htm"

http://www.superconductors.org/type2.htm

Superconductors Type 1

2015-11-30T22:34:12Z

Slee: Created page with "http://www.superconductors.org/type1.htm"

http://www.superconductors.org/type1.htm

Superconducters

2015-11-30T22:34:00Z

Slee: /* Further Reading */

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

Superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== About Superconductors ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]

Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

'''Futuristic Technology like Hover boards'''- through a phenomena called Quantum Levitation, superconductors can be used to create things that levitate- the superconductor will float easily above a magnet. This could be potentially used for all sorts of levitation devices like cars, hoverboards, or stuff we can't even imagine yet. To read more about [[Quantum Levitation, click here]].

[[File:hoverboardsavannah.jpg]]

Photo curtesy of http://www.blastr.com/2015-5-22/watch-guy-break-world-record-longest-hoverboard-flight-ever

'''Cool cell phones'''- current never disappears in a superconducting loop of metal, so technology with superconducting metal would never run out of power, but continue to be charged forever. This could cut down on electricity usage worldwide, allowing for some serious energy savings.

== Further Reading ==

[[Superconductors Type 1]]

[[Superconductors Type 2]]

[[Futuristic Technology and Superconductors]]

[[List of corresponding Superconductors and their Tc and Hc constants]]

Superconducters

2015-11-30T21:12:33Z

Slee: /* Applications of Superconductors */

File:LHC.jpg

2015-11-30T21:12:15Z

Slee:

Main Page

2015-11-30T21:11:43Z

Slee: /* Maxwell's Equations */

__NOTOC__
Welcome to the Georgia Tech Wiki for Intro Physics. This resources was created so that students can contribute and curate content to help those with limited or no access to a textbook. When reading this website, please correct any errors you may come across. If you read something that isn't clear, please consider revising it!

Looking to make a contribution?
#Pick a specific topic from intro physics
#Add that topic, as a link to a new page, under the appropriate category listed below by editing this page.
#Copy and paste the default [[Template]] into your new page and start editing.

Please remember that this is not a textbook and you are not limited to expressing your ideas with only text and equations. Whenever possible embed: pictures, videos, diagrams, simulations, computational models (e.g. Glowscript), and whatever content you think makes learning physics easier for other students.

== Source Material ==
All of the content added to this resource must be in the public domain or similar free resource. If you are unsure about a source, contact the original author for permission. That said, there is a surprisingly large amount of introductory physics content scattered across the web. Here is an incomplete list of intro physics resources (please update as needed).
* A physics resource written by experts for an expert audience [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics Physics Portal]
* A wiki book on modern physics [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Modern_Physics Modern Physics Wiki]
* The MIT open courseware for intro physics [http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-8-002-a-wikitextbook-for-introductory-mechanics-fall-2009/index.htm MITOCW Wiki]
* An online concept map of intro physics [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html HyperPhysics]
* Interactive physics simulations [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics PhET]
* OpenStax algebra based intro physics textbook [https://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/college-physics College Physics]
* The Open Source Physics project is a collection of online physics resources [http://www.opensourcephysics.org/ OSP]
* A resource guide compiled by the [http://www.aapt.org/ AAPT] for educators [http://www.compadre.org/ ComPADRE]

== Organizing Categories ==
These are the broad, overarching categories, that we cover in two semester of introductory physics. You can add subcategories or make a new category as needed. A single topic should direct readers to a page in one of these catagories.

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
===Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Kinds of Matter]]
*[[Detecting Interactions]]
*[[Fundamental Interactions]]
*[[System & Surroundings]]
*[[Newton's First Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Second Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Third Law of Motion]]
*[[Gravitational Force]]
*[[Terminal Speed]]
*[[Simple Harmonic Motion]]
*[[Speed and Velocity]]
*[[Electric Polarization]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Theory===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]
*[[Quantum Theory]]
*[[Big Bang Theory]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Notable Scientists===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]
*[[Joseph Henry]]
*[[Michael Faraday]]
*[[J.J. Thomson]]
*[[James Maxwell]]
*[[Robert Hooke]]
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
*[[Nikola Tesla]]
*[[Andre Marie Ampere]]
*[[Sir Isaac Newton]]
*[[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
*[[Oliver Heaviside]]
*[[Rosalind Franklin]]
*[[Erwin Schrödinger]]
*[[Enrico Fermi]]
*[[Robert J. Van de Graaff]]
*[[Charles de Coulomb]]
*[[Hans Christian Ørsted]]
*[[Philo Farnsworth]]
*[[Niels Bohr]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Galileo Galilei]]
*[[Gustav Kirchhoff]]
*[[Max Planck]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Edwin Hall]]
*[[James Watt]]
*[[Count Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Josiah Willard Gibbs]]
*[[Richard Phillips Feynman]]
*[[Sir David Brewster]]
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]]
*[[William Thomson]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Properties of Matter===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Mass]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Relative Velocity]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Charge]]
*[[Spin]]
*[[SI Units]]
*[[Heat Capacity]]
*[[Specific Heat]]
*[[Wavelength]]
*[[Conductivity]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Contact Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Young's Modulus]]
* [[Friction]]
* [[Tension]]
* [[Hooke's Law]]
*[[Centripetal Force and Curving Motion]]
*[[Compression or Normal Force]]
* [[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Vectors]]
* [[Kinematics]]
* [[Conservation of Momentum]]
* [[Predicting Change in multiple dimensions]]
* [[Momentum Principle]]
* [[Impulse Momentum]]
* [[Curving Motion]]
* [[Multi-particle Analysis of Momentum]]
* [[Iterative Prediction]]
* [[Newton's Laws and Linear Momentum]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Angular Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[The Moments of Inertia]]
* [[Rotation]]
* [[Torque]]
*[[Systems with Zero Torque]]
*[[Systems with Nonzero Torque]]
* [[Right Hand Rule]]
* [[Angular Velocity]]
* [[Predicting a Change in Rotation]]
* [[Conservation of Angular Momentum]]
*[[Rotational Angular Momentum]]
*[[Total Angular Momentum]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Energy===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[The Energy Principle]]
*[[Predicting Change]]
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]
*[[Kinetic Energy]]
*[[Potential Energy]]
*[[Work]]
*[[Thermal Energy]]
*[[Conservation of Energy]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
*[[Energy Transfer due to a Temperature Difference]]
*[[Gravitational Potential Energy]]
*[[Point Particle Systems]]
*[[Real Systems]]
*[[Spring Potential Energy]]
*[[Internal Energy]]
*[[Translational, Rotational and Vibrational Energy]]
*[[Franck-Hertz Experiment]]
*[[Power]]
*[[Energy Graphs]]
*[[Air Resistance]]
*[[Electronic Energy Levels]]
*[[Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy]]
*[[Specific Heat Capacity]]
*[[Quantized Energy Levels]]
*[[Energy Density]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Collisions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Collisions]]
*[[Maximally Inelastic Collision]]
*[[Elastic Collisions]]
*[[Inelastic Collisions]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Equal Masses]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Unequal Masses]]
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Fields===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Electric Field]] of a
** [[Point Charge]]
** [[Electric Dipole]]
** [[Capacitor]]
** [[Charged Rod]]
** [[Charged Ring]]
** [[Charged Disk]]
** [[Charged Spherical Shell]]
** [[Charged Cylinder]]
**[[A Solid Sphere Charged Throughout Its Volume]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
**[[Potential Difference in a Uniform Field]]
**[[Potential Difference of point charge in a non-Uniform Field]]
**[[Sign of Potential Difference]]
**[[Potential Difference in an Insulator]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Polarization]]
*[[Charge Motion in Metals]]
*[[Magnetic Field]]
**[[Right-Hand Rule]]
**[[Direction of Magnetic Field]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Wire]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Loop]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Solenoid]]
**[[Bar Magnet]]
**[[Magnetic Force]]
**[[Hall Effect]]
**[[Lorentz Force]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law for Currents]]
**[[Integration Techniques for Magnetic Field]]
**[[Sparks in Air]]
**[[Motional Emf]]
**[[Detecting a Magnetic Field]]
**[[Moving Point Charge]]
**[[Non-Coulomb Electric Field]]
**[[Motors and Generators]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Simple Circuits===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Components]]
*[[Steady State]]
*[[Non Steady State]]
*[[Node Rule]]
*[[Loop Rule]]
*[[Power in a circuit]]
*[[Ammeters,Voltmeters,Ohmmeters]]
*[[Current]]
*[[Ohm's Law]]
*[[Series Circuits]]
*[[RC]]
*[[Circular Loop of Wire]]
*[[RL Circuit]]
*[[LC Circuit]]
*[[Surface Charge Distributions]]
*[[Feedback]]
*[[Transformers]]
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Maxwell's Equations===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Gauss's Flux Theorem]]
**[[Electric Fields]]
**[[Magnetic Fields]]
*[[Ampere's Law]]
**[[Magnetic Field of Coaxial Cable Using Ampere's Law]]
*[[Faraday's Law]]
**[[Curly Electric Fields]]
**[[Inductance]]
**[[Lenz's Law]]
***[[Lenz Effect and the Jumping Ring]]
**[[Motional Emf using Faraday's Law]]
*[[Ampere-Maxwell Law]]
**[[Superconducters]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Radiation===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Producing a Radiative Electric Field]]
*[[Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Radiaton]]
*[[Lenses]]
*[[Energy and Momentum Analysis in Radiation]]
*[[Electromagnetic Propagation]]
*[[Snell's Law]]
*[[Light Propagation Through a Medium]]
</div>
</div>
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Sound===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Doppler Effect]]
*[[Nature, Behavior, and Properties of Sound]]
*[[Resonance]]
*[[Sound Barrier]]
</div>
</div>
*[[blahb]]
</div>
</div>

== Resources ==
* Commonly used wiki commands [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cheatsheet Wiki Cheatsheet]
* A guide to representing equations in math mode [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Displaying_a_formula Wiki Math Mode]
* A page to keep track of all the physics [[Constants]]
* An overview of [[VPython]]

Main Page

2015-11-30T21:11:10Z

Slee: /* Maxwell's Equations */

__NOTOC__
Welcome to the Georgia Tech Wiki for Intro Physics. This resources was created so that students can contribute and curate content to help those with limited or no access to a textbook. When reading this website, please correct any errors you may come across. If you read something that isn't clear, please consider revising it!

Looking to make a contribution?
#Pick a specific topic from intro physics
#Add that topic, as a link to a new page, under the appropriate category listed below by editing this page.
#Copy and paste the default [[Template]] into your new page and start editing.

Please remember that this is not a textbook and you are not limited to expressing your ideas with only text and equations. Whenever possible embed: pictures, videos, diagrams, simulations, computational models (e.g. Glowscript), and whatever content you think makes learning physics easier for other students.

== Source Material ==
All of the content added to this resource must be in the public domain or similar free resource. If you are unsure about a source, contact the original author for permission. That said, there is a surprisingly large amount of introductory physics content scattered across the web. Here is an incomplete list of intro physics resources (please update as needed).
* A physics resource written by experts for an expert audience [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics Physics Portal]
* A wiki book on modern physics [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Modern_Physics Modern Physics Wiki]
* The MIT open courseware for intro physics [http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-8-002-a-wikitextbook-for-introductory-mechanics-fall-2009/index.htm MITOCW Wiki]
* An online concept map of intro physics [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html HyperPhysics]
* Interactive physics simulations [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics PhET]
* OpenStax algebra based intro physics textbook [https://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/college-physics College Physics]
* The Open Source Physics project is a collection of online physics resources [http://www.opensourcephysics.org/ OSP]
* A resource guide compiled by the [http://www.aapt.org/ AAPT] for educators [http://www.compadre.org/ ComPADRE]

== Organizing Categories ==
These are the broad, overarching categories, that we cover in two semester of introductory physics. You can add subcategories or make a new category as needed. A single topic should direct readers to a page in one of these catagories.

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">
===Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Kinds of Matter]]
*[[Detecting Interactions]]
*[[Fundamental Interactions]]
*[[System & Surroundings]]
*[[Newton's First Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Second Law of Motion]]
*[[Newton's Third Law of Motion]]
*[[Gravitational Force]]
*[[Terminal Speed]]
*[[Simple Harmonic Motion]]
*[[Speed and Velocity]]
*[[Electric Polarization]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Theory===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]
*[[Quantum Theory]]
*[[Big Bang Theory]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Notable Scientists===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]
*[[Joseph Henry]]
*[[Michael Faraday]]
*[[J.J. Thomson]]
*[[James Maxwell]]
*[[Robert Hooke]]
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
*[[Nikola Tesla]]
*[[Andre Marie Ampere]]
*[[Sir Isaac Newton]]
*[[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]
*[[Oliver Heaviside]]
*[[Rosalind Franklin]]
*[[Erwin Schrödinger]]
*[[Enrico Fermi]]
*[[Robert J. Van de Graaff]]
*[[Charles de Coulomb]]
*[[Hans Christian Ørsted]]
*[[Philo Farnsworth]]
*[[Niels Bohr]]
*[[Georg Ohm]]
*[[Galileo Galilei]]
*[[Gustav Kirchhoff]]
*[[Max Planck]]
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]
*[[Edwin Hall]]
*[[James Watt]]
*[[Count Alessandro Volta]]
*[[Josiah Willard Gibbs]]
*[[Richard Phillips Feynman]]
*[[Sir David Brewster]]
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]]
*[[William Thomson]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Properties of Matter===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Mass]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Relative Velocity]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Charge]]
*[[Spin]]
*[[SI Units]]
*[[Heat Capacity]]
*[[Specific Heat]]
*[[Wavelength]]
*[[Conductivity]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Contact Interactions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Young's Modulus]]
* [[Friction]]
* [[Tension]]
* [[Hooke's Law]]
*[[Centripetal Force and Curving Motion]]
*[[Compression or Normal Force]]
* [[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Vectors]]
* [[Kinematics]]
* [[Conservation of Momentum]]
* [[Predicting Change in multiple dimensions]]
* [[Momentum Principle]]
* [[Impulse Momentum]]
* [[Curving Motion]]
* [[Multi-particle Analysis of Momentum]]
* [[Iterative Prediction]]
* [[Newton's Laws and Linear Momentum]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Angular Momentum===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[The Moments of Inertia]]
* [[Rotation]]
* [[Torque]]
*[[Systems with Zero Torque]]
*[[Systems with Nonzero Torque]]
* [[Right Hand Rule]]
* [[Angular Velocity]]
* [[Predicting a Change in Rotation]]
* [[Conservation of Angular Momentum]]
*[[Rotational Angular Momentum]]
*[[Total Angular Momentum]]

</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Energy===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[The Energy Principle]]
*[[Predicting Change]]
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]
*[[Kinetic Energy]]
*[[Potential Energy]]
*[[Work]]
*[[Thermal Energy]]
*[[Conservation of Energy]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
*[[Energy Transfer due to a Temperature Difference]]
*[[Gravitational Potential Energy]]
*[[Point Particle Systems]]
*[[Real Systems]]
*[[Spring Potential Energy]]
*[[Internal Energy]]
*[[Translational, Rotational and Vibrational Energy]]
*[[Franck-Hertz Experiment]]
*[[Power]]
*[[Energy Graphs]]
*[[Air Resistance]]
*[[Electronic Energy Levels]]
*[[Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy]]
*[[Specific Heat Capacity]]
*[[Quantized Energy Levels]]
*[[Energy Density]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Collisions===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Collisions]]
*[[Maximally Inelastic Collision]]
*[[Elastic Collisions]]
*[[Inelastic Collisions]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Equal Masses]]
*[[Head-on Collision of Unequal Masses]]
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Fields===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
* [[Electric Field]] of a
** [[Point Charge]]
** [[Electric Dipole]]
** [[Capacitor]]
** [[Charged Rod]]
** [[Charged Ring]]
** [[Charged Disk]]
** [[Charged Spherical Shell]]
** [[Charged Cylinder]]
**[[A Solid Sphere Charged Throughout Its Volume]]
*[[Electric Potential]]
**[[Potential Difference in a Uniform Field]]
**[[Potential Difference of point charge in a non-Uniform Field]]
**[[Sign of Potential Difference]]
**[[Potential Difference in an Insulator]]
*[[Electric Force]]
*[[Polarization]]
*[[Charge Motion in Metals]]
*[[Magnetic Field]]
**[[Right-Hand Rule]]
**[[Direction of Magnetic Field]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Wire]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Loop]]
**[[Magnetic Field of a Solenoid]]
**[[Bar Magnet]]
**[[Magnetic Force]]
**[[Hall Effect]]
**[[Lorentz Force]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law]]
**[[Biot-Savart Law for Currents]]
**[[Integration Techniques for Magnetic Field]]
**[[Sparks in Air]]
**[[Motional Emf]]
**[[Detecting a Magnetic Field]]
**[[Moving Point Charge]]
**[[Non-Coulomb Electric Field]]
**[[Motors and Generators]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Simple Circuits===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Components]]
*[[Steady State]]
*[[Non Steady State]]
*[[Node Rule]]
*[[Loop Rule]]
*[[Power in a circuit]]
*[[Ammeters,Voltmeters,Ohmmeters]]
*[[Current]]
*[[Ohm's Law]]
*[[Series Circuits]]
*[[RC]]
*[[Circular Loop of Wire]]
*[[RL Circuit]]
*[[LC Circuit]]
*[[Surface Charge Distributions]]
*[[Feedback]]
*[[Transformers]]
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Maxwell's Equations===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Gauss's Flux Theorem]]
**[[Electric Fields]]
**[[Magnetic Fields]]
*[[Ampere's Law]]
**[[Magnetic Field of Coaxial Cable Using Ampere's Law]]
*[[Faraday's Law]]
**[[Curly Electric Fields]]
**[[Inductance]]
**[[Lenz's Law]]
***[[Lenz Effect and the Jumping Ring]]
**[[Motional Emf using Faraday's Law]]
*[[Ampere-Maxwell Law]]
**[[Superconductors]]
</div>
</div>

<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Radiation===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Producing a Radiative Electric Field]]
*[[Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Radiaton]]
*[[Lenses]]
*[[Energy and Momentum Analysis in Radiation]]
*[[Electromagnetic Propagation]]
*[[Snell's Law]]
*[[Light Propagation Through a Medium]]
</div>
</div>
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

===Sound===
<div class="mw-collapsible-content">
*[[Doppler Effect]]
*[[Nature, Behavior, and Properties of Sound]]
*[[Resonance]]
*[[Sound Barrier]]
</div>
</div>
*[[blahb]]
</div>
</div>

== Resources ==
* Commonly used wiki commands [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cheatsheet Wiki Cheatsheet]
* A guide to representing equations in math mode [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Displaying_a_formula Wiki Math Mode]
* A page to keep track of all the physics [[Constants]]
* An overview of [[VPython]]

Superconducters

2015-11-30T21:09:22Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

Superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== About Superconductors ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

'''Futuristic Technology like Hover boards'''- through a phenomena called Quantum Levitation, superconductors can be used to create things that levitate- the superconductor will float easily above a magnet. This could be potentially used for all sorts of levitation devices like cars, hoverboards, or stuff we can't even imagine yet. To read more about [[Quantum Levitation, click here]].

[[File:hoverboardsavannah.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.blastr.com/2015-5-22/watch-guy-break-world-record-longest-hoverboard-flight-ever

'''Cool cell phones'''- current never disappears in a superconducting loop of metal, so technology with superconducting metal would never run out of power, but continue to be charged forever. This could cut down on electricity usage worldwide, allowing for some serious energy savings.

== Further Reading ==

Superconducters

2015-11-30T21:06:50Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

Superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== About Superconductors ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

'''Futuristic Technology like Hover boards'''- through a phenomena called Quantum Levitation, superconductors can be used to create things that levitate- the superconductor will float easily above a magnet. This could be potentially used for all sorts of levitation devices like cars, hoverboards, or stuff we can't even imagine yet. To read more about [[Quantum Levitation, click here]].

[[File:hoverboardsavannah.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.blastr.com/2015-5-22/watch-guy-break-world-record-longest-hoverboard-flight-ever

Quantum Levitation, click here

2015-11-30T21:05:39Z

Slee: Created page with "http://quantumlevitation.com/the-physics/"

http://quantumlevitation.com/the-physics/

File:Hoverboardsavannah.jpg

2015-11-30T21:05:08Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T21:04:54Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

'''Futuristic Technology like Hover boards'''- through a phenomena called Quantum Levitation, superconductors can be used to create things that levitate- the superconductor will float easily above a magnet. This could be potentially used for all sorts of levitation devices like cars, hoverboards, or stuff we can't even imagine yet. To read more about [[Quantum Levitation, click here]].

[[File:hoverboardsavannah.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.blastr.com/2015-5-22/watch-guy-break-world-record-longest-hoverboard-flight-ever

Superconducters

2015-11-30T21:04:32Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

'''Futuristic Technology like Hover boards'''- through a phenomena called Quantum Levitation, superconductors can be used to create things that levitate- the superconductor will float easily above a magnet. This could be potentially used for all sorts of levitation devices like cars, hoverboards, or stuff we can't even imagine yet. To read more about [[Quantum Levitation, click here]].

[[File:hoverboard.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.blastr.com/2015-5-22/watch-guy-break-world-record-longest-hoverboard-flight-ever

Superconducters

2015-11-30T21:03:46Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

'''Futuristic Technology like Hover boards'''- through a phenomena called Quantum Levitation, superconductors can be used to create things that levitate- the superconductor will float easily above a magnet. This could be potentially used for all sorts of levitation devices like cars, hoverboards, or stuff we can't even imagine yet. To read more about [[Quantum Levitation, click here]].

[[File:hover.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.blastr.com/2015-5-22/watch-guy-break-world-record-longest-hoverboard-flight-ever

LHC, click here

2015-11-30T20:58:18Z

Slee: Created page with "http://physics.about.com/od/particleaccelerators/a/largehadron.htm"

http://physics.about.com/od/particleaccelerators/a/largehadron.htm

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:57:47Z

Slee: /* Applications of Superconductors */

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the [[LHC, click here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:57:09Z

Slee: /* Applications of Superconductors */

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

'''Large Hadron Supercollider'''- The Large Hadron Supercollider runs between France and Switzerland, and is used to experiment with fundamental particles and other complicated stuff. It uses superconductors to accelerate particles to super high speeds so that they can be observed. For more information about the LHC, click [[here]].

[[File:LHC.jpg]]
Photo curtesy of http://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2015/03/25/short-circuit-stalls-large-hadron-colliders-restart/

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:25:20Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

== Applications of Superconductors ==

File:Type2Superconductor.jpg

2015-11-30T20:23:45Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:22:55Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

[[File:Type2Superconductor.jpg]]

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

File:Type1Superconductor.jpg

2015-11-30T20:21:23Z

Slee: Slee uploaded a new version of "File:Type1Superconductor.jpg"

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:19:36Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg|300pix|]]

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:18:58Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

'''Superconductors'''- superconductors are materials that can conduct electricity (or current) perfectly, meaning that no energy is lost to electric resistance. In order to understand why this is cool and see some examples, it's important to understand what electrical resistance is and why it creates problems. They also exhibit can get rid of all magnetic fields present on the inside of the material itself, called the Meisner effect. For some cool practical applications, stay tuned until the end.

== Introduction to Resistance==

Electric resistance is a property of all metals and conductors except superconductors. It's also the reason why your devices get hot after long periods of use, and the reason why they wear out. This is due to the resistance of the wire that the current is trying to pass through. Resistance measures, most broadly, how difficult it is for electrons to pass through the wire. It's kind of like friction from mechanics in the sense that it saps out energy from what would otherwise be a perfect system.

It's easy to think about electric resistance in the same way as you would water flowing through a pipe, and the obstacles it might meet. We know from earlier that a larger wire will produce a larger flow of current in the same way that a larger pipe would allow water to pass through more quickly than water through a smaller pipe.

However, it's not as easy to get rid of electrical resistance as it sounds. In a conductor and current situation, electrons flow between metal ions to their endpoint. How well they "hold on" to these electrons is a measure of their resistance. Depending on the material that this is made up off, the metal ions will hold onto the electrons differently and cause them to flow through at a different rate. Electrons get distracted on the way to the end of the wire and lose energy as a result. But, in a superconductor, this is eliminated and the electrons are able to march from start to finish without losing any energy. Also, this all takes place at temperatures around absolute zero, which is super hard to maintain in a lab.

== How Superconductors Work and some Basic Properties ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through until it heated up and the effect was nullified. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, or at least improve from where it was, but not quite zero. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors. What is happening on the molecular level is that the atoms are not vibrating quickly enough to be attracted to electrons any more, and attractions are minimized to the point where the electrons can flow through with no resistance.

It's like running through a tunnel where everyone wants to high five you. You're the electron, and the people trying to high five you are atoms in the wire. If it's too cold, nobody will want to high five you and you will run faster.

Superconductors will only be superconductors if within a certain range beneath their critical temperature and critical magnetic field. If it is warmer than these values, or the magnetic field is stronger, they might be really good conductors, but not super conductors.

'''Critical Temperature'''- often labeled as Tc, or critical temperature. This is the temperature at which the superconductor needs to be beneath in order for it to exhibit these behaviors. Some superconductors are more useful than others because they have higher critical temperatures. To see a table of these, click [[here]]. Obviously, some have more practical applications than others because of these temperatures.

'''Critical Magnetic Field'''- often labeled as Hc. A superconductor also won't exhibit any of its properties if a magnetic field is greater than a certain value, called the critical magnetic field, even at absolute zero. Superconductors that have higher critical temperatures usually have higher critical magnetic fields, but the correlation isn't exact.

'''Meisner effect'''- unique to superconductors, this is the ability to cancel out all external magnetic fields on the inside of the superconductor below the critical magnetic field. Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor can create mini currents on its surface to eliminate these in the same way that a block of metal can automatically generate an electric field to block out an external electric field, making its net electric field zero. Basically, you could never be asked to do a hall effect problem with a superconductor!

There are two types of superconductors, cleverly named Type 1 and Type 2. Their classification is based on how they break down once their critical magnetic field is reached. Under the critical magnetic field and critical temperature, they all behave similarly.

'''Type 1'''- The first type of superconductor is one that has been experimented with the longest. When they are raised above their critical magnetic field, they simply stop being superconductors. Most commonly, these are pure metals like Aluminum and Mercury.

[[File:Type1Superconductor.jpg]]|300px|

'''Type 2'''- when at the critical magnetic field, type 2 superconductors will slowly lose their properties, rather than just completely becoming normal conductors like Type 1. When they break down, they form mini currents and somewhat exhibit the Meisner effect, having a mix of properties between conductors and superconductors. They exhibit 2 critical Magnetic fields, Hc1 where they are no longer complete superconductors, and Hc2 when they are no longer partial superconductors. These superconductors aren't fully understood and need to be further researched.

== History of Superconductors ==

1911- Superconductors were first discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch Physicist. He experimented with mercury, a type 1 superconductor, below 4 degrees celcius.

1935- Type 2 superconductors were first discovered by Leb Shubnikov.

1950s- Lev Lendau and Vitaly Ginzburg were the first to theorize about why type 2 superconductors existed.

1972- The basic theory of superconductivity was published by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. They went on to win a nobel prize.

1986- Karl Muller and Johannes Bednorz realized that superconductors didn't have to be at absolute zero, and found a way to create one that operated at 40 degrees kelvin.

2015- We acheived the greatest record of superconducter temperature at 203 degrees kelvin, but under high pressure. We've been using pressure to cheat the temperature requirements for a while. This was the work of A. P. Drozdov,M. I. Eremets,I. A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, and S. I. Shylin.

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:10:25Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:10:10Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:07:48Z

Slee:

File:Type1Superconductor.jpg

2015-11-30T20:06:01Z

Slee: Slee uploaded a new version of "File:Type1Superconductor.jpg"

File:Type1Superconductor.jpg

2015-11-30T20:05:06Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T20:04:49Z

Slee:

Here

2015-11-30T19:31:08Z

Slee:

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/scond.html

Superconducters

2015-11-30T19:30:50Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T19:24:16Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T19:04:38Z

Slee: /* How Superconductors Work */

Superconducters

2015-11-30T19:03:47Z

Slee:

Here

2015-11-30T19:02:59Z

Slee: Created page with "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zero"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zero

Superconducters

2015-11-30T19:02:46Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T18:53:43Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T18:32:45Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. The work is also mine.- Thanks, Savannah Lee. I'm trying to upload a photo of the file history for you to see but it isn't actually working.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

== Introduction to Resistance==

The reason why super conductance is a cool topic to learn about is because of electrical resistance (link here). Electrical resistance is basically what causes things to wear out and devices to need to be replaced. You can "feel" it or see properties of it if you've ever felt a circuit, or even a laptop that's extra hot after long periods of use. It can easily be thought of as the obstacles that prevent water from flowing in a pipe, with water being the electrons. The material that the pipe is made of could present issues, as well as the size and shape of the pipe. For the most part, water will flow more slowly through a pipe than it would without a pipe.

The problem of electrical resistance has a lot of potential to create really cool electrical devices for the future. It's somewhat analogous to friction from physics 1 in the sense that it slowly leaches energy from a system until it reaches zero. Just like how without friction, you could kick a ball around the world without it stopping or slowing down, without electric resistance, you could create a circuit that would have a current flowing forever. This has really cool practical applications and could create all sorts of new technology for the future- imagine devices that didn't need to be charged, or super low energy prices. More on this later.

== How a Superconducter Works ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, but not quite. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors.

Obviously, having to cool something down to absolute zero, or very close, creates a lot of problems from a research standpoint alone. Some superconducters can exist under their particular critical temperature.

File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg

2015-11-30T18:29:40Z

Slee:

Superconducters

2015-11-30T18:27:09Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. - Thanks, Savannah Lee. The work is also mine.

[[File:Savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

== Introduction to Resistance==

The reason why super conductance is a cool topic to learn about is because of electrical resistance (link here). Electrical resistance is basically what causes things to wear out and devices to need to be replaced. You can "feel" it or see properties of it if you've ever felt a circuit, or even a laptop that's extra hot after long periods of use. It can easily be thought of as the obstacles that prevent water from flowing in a pipe, with water being the electrons. The material that the pipe is made of could present issues, as well as the size and shape of the pipe. For the most part, water will flow more slowly through a pipe than it would without a pipe.

The problem of electrical resistance has a lot of potential to create really cool electrical devices for the future. It's somewhat analogous to friction from physics 1 in the sense that it slowly leaches energy from a system until it reaches zero. Just like how without friction, you could kick a ball around the world without it stopping or slowing down, without electric resistance, you could create a circuit that would have a current flowing forever. This has really cool practical applications and could create all sorts of new technology for the future- imagine devices that didn't need to be charged, or super low energy prices. More on this later.

== How a Superconducter Works ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, but not quite. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors.

Obviously, having to cool something down to absolute zero, or very close, creates a lot of problems from a research standpoint alone. Some superconducters can exist under their particular critical temperature.

Superconducters

2015-11-30T18:26:30Z

Slee:

A work in progress by the renowned author Ian Sebastian.

Hey Ian, I actually started this page a while ago and figured that that would be enough to go ahead and claim it as mine. - Thanks, Savannah Lee. The work is also mine.

[[File:savannahownsthis.jpeg]]

== Introduction to Resistance==

The reason why super conductance is a cool topic to learn about is because of electrical resistance (link here). Electrical resistance is basically what causes things to wear out and devices to need to be replaced. You can "feel" it or see properties of it if you've ever felt a circuit, or even a laptop that's extra hot after long periods of use. It can easily be thought of as the obstacles that prevent water from flowing in a pipe, with water being the electrons. The material that the pipe is made of could present issues, as well as the size and shape of the pipe. For the most part, water will flow more slowly through a pipe than it would without a pipe.

The problem of electrical resistance has a lot of potential to create really cool electrical devices for the future. It's somewhat analogous to friction from physics 1 in the sense that it slowly leaches energy from a system until it reaches zero. Just like how without friction, you could kick a ball around the world without it stopping or slowing down, without electric resistance, you could create a circuit that would have a current flowing forever. This has really cool practical applications and could create all sorts of new technology for the future- imagine devices that didn't need to be charged, or super low energy prices. More on this later.

== How a Superconducter Works ==

When you lower the temperature of a metal, its resistance will decrease. You could demonstrate this by taking a basic circuit and freezing it- because of ohm's law, the bulb would start to glow brighter since there is a lot more current flowing through. (V=IR, lowering R will raise I which will raise brightness). For most materials, taking them to absolute zero (or really close) will cause the resistance to decrease to almost zero, but not quite. However, some materials, superconductors, lose all resistance to current. The difference between "almost zero" and "actually zero" is enough to give rise to some cool properties of superconductors.

Obviously, having to cool something down to absolute zero, or very close, creates a lot of problems from a research standpoint alone. Some superconducters can exist under their particular critical temperature.